by
Professor Bethwell A. Ogot, Director
Institute for Research and Postgraduate Studies
and
Professor John C. Weidman
UNESCO Chair of Higher Education Research
Maseno University College
Institute of Research and Postgraduate Studies
P.O. Private Bag, Maseno, Kenya
Tel. (035) 51008/51267/51011/51622
FAX. (035) 51153 or 51221
[9 December 1993]
Contents
Background: Issues in African Higher Education
1. Mission of Higher Education in African Society
2. Access to Higher Education
3. Women's Access to Higher Education
4. Quality and Content of Education
5. Harmonization of Curricula and Academic Mobility
6. Inter-University Cooperation and Pooling of Resources
7. Higher Education as a Factor in Social Change
8. Teachers' Status
9. Research
10. Financing
Research Needed on Higher Education in Developing Countries
1. Policy, Administration, Management, and Governance
2. Curriculum, Teaching, and Instructional Technology
3. Student and Academic Staff Development and Evaluation
Higher Education in Kenya: Significant Themes
1. Access and Gender Equity
2. Increased Use of Technology
3. Continuing Professional Development of Academic Staff (Teaching
and Research) and Administrators
4. Establishing Capacity for Reform and Innovation
5. Diversifying Finance
Proposed Research Agenda
1. History and Current Status of Higher Education in Kenya
and East Africa
2. Academic Staff Development
3. Student Development
4. Higher Education and Employment
5. Policy, Reform, and Management
Tentative Timetable: Years 1 and 2
Inter-Institutional Cooperation
The Regional Development Context: Kenya and East Africa
The Institutional Context: Maseno University College
Institute of Research and Postgraduate Studies
Anticipated Resource Needs
References
List of Tables
Table 1: Kenya Education Trends by Type of Institution,
1963-1992 (Selected Years)
Table 2: First Year Undergraduate Enrolment in Public
Universities, 1992/93
Table 3: Kenya Recurrent Expenditures Per Student by
Level of Education, 1992/93
Table 4: Development Status of Countries in East Africa
Prospectus for a Five Year Programme of Research
on Higher Education in Kenya and East Africa
A programme of research should be developed around the issues and concerns that appear consistently in deliberations about the current status and future prospects of higher education in Africa. In the first section of this prospectus, we describe the areas of critical interest that have been identified in recent publications, focusing on the common themes that are relevant for building a research agenda. We then use those common themes for developing our own particular research programme, based on what we perceive to be the developmental needs of our institution, first, and then of Kenya and the East African region. We are especially interested in extending our focus to Uganda and Tanzania because, along with Kenya, their governments were the parties to the Treaty for East African Cooperation signed at Arusha on 30 November 1993. Among other things this treaty identifies education, research, and communications as central concerns for the development of East Africa. It should also facilitate the recognition of academic degrees and other qualifications across the three countries. We conclude with some suggestions about strategy and funding, including the cooperative involvement of researchers from other institutions in Africa as well as in Europe and the United States.
Background: Issues in African Higher Education
African leaders and higher education experts who participated in seminars held in Accra, Ghana, in 1991 (UNESCO, 1992), and in Dakar, Senegal, in 1992 (UNESCO, 1993), identified ten major areas of concern about the current status and future prospects of African higher education. The following summarizes the observations and recommendations made as a result of these seminars (Consultation of Experts on Future Trends and Challenges of Higher Education in Africa, 1992):
1. Mission of Higher Education in African Society
There is a need to build institutions that are truly oriented toward the development of African societies and the promotion of African cultures. This will require greater efforts at producing the kinds of graduates who will not only be adaptable to the rapidly changing needs of African society but also contribute to innovation and development.
2. Access to Higher Education
Rapid increases in enrolments have occurred without consideration of the distribution of students by discipline and the extent to which current patterns will satisfy African manpower needs. Guidance and counseling of students should take African development needs into account along with more careful attention to the ability and aptitude of entering students.
3. Women's Access to Higher Education
The participation of women in African higher education is very low compared to many countries, in large part because of traditional cultural values that emphasize women's roles as wife and mother. Specific actions should be taken to encourage the continuation of girls and women through primary and secondary school. Both material and academic incentives should be offered that will facilitate their entrance into and successful completion of higher education.
4. Quality and Content of Education
There are serious problems in Africa with the quality of instruction, the size of classes, availability of up-to-date materials and equipment, the relevance of the curriculum to current conditions, and the integration of higher education with the world of work. Higher education institutions should begin to provide pedagogical training to their teachers as well as to their graduate students seeking to become teachers at the tertiary level. Students should have opportunities to experience the world of work through such experiences as internships, cooperative placements with employers in their field of study, and off-term jobs. Specific plans should also be developed for the acquisition of needed materials and equipment.
5. Harmonization of Curricula and Academic Mobility
Mobility among countries in Africa is hindered by the "critical mismatch between curricula and societal needs," and the "lack of mutual recognition" of academic degrees and qualifications. Institutions need to "intensify information exchange." Member states should "ratify and effectively enforce the Arusha Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas and other Qualifications."
6. Inter-University Cooperation and Pooling of Resources
Institutions of higher education in Africa are more inclined toward developing joint activities with countries in the North rather than with their African neighbors. They should join forces to develop "centres of excellence" in Africa and seek external resources that would facilitate this process such as the UNESCO UNITWIN and UNESCO Chairs programmes.
7. Higher Education as a Factor in Social Change
There is a need to recognize the unique contributions that African higher education institutions have made to the adoption of innovation in a variety of fields. Greater efforts should be made to strengthen the contribution of higher education to "innovation, especially in the promotion of endogenous technologies and cultural heritage."
8. Teachers' Status
Teachers in African universities continue to be underpaid in comparison to those with similar qualifications working in other economic sectors. This has contributed to "brain drain" as highly respected academics have been sought by other universities and left Africa for different parts of the world. Efforts must be made to upgrade academic salaries so that teachers will not be motivated to leave higher education in search of higher pay and status.
9. Research
Research "should keep abreast with teaching and should help to raise the quality of higher education, in particular, and of social life, in general." The contributions of research in Africa, however, are hindered by the lack of adequate resources and limited applicability to societal needs. Attention must be paid to (a) improving both basic and applied research, (b) furthering work on advanced technologies of critical social and economic need in Africa, (c) improving the preparation of researchers, (d) setting up "adequate structures for the coordination, dissemination and publication of research results," (e) working to make research activities an integral part of institutions' public service functions, and (f) reducing duplication through inter-institutional cooperation involving both researchers and facilities.
10. Financing
Government budgets in Africa have been inadequate to fund the actual needs of institutions. Higher education should be given a major priority because of its significance for social and economic development. In addition, institutions should seek to diversify their funding base through a variety of cost-recovery measures such as rental of facilities, charging fees for services to non-university constituencies, and contracting for professional consultation.
While the manner in which the foregoing ten areas are addressed is more directly oriented toward the formulation of policy recommendations than toward identifying needed research, there is clearly a recognition of the importance of research for both the vitality of African higher education institutions and the continuing development of the African continent. Pressing topics (e.g., curriculum and teaching; faculty development) as well as central issues that need to be considered, no matter what the topic (e.g., women's access to and participation in African higher education; inter-university cooperation), are also identified.
These policy recommendations as well as deliberations of interested bodies such as the Association of African Universities (AAU) also form the basic background of a comprehensive volume dealing with trends and challenges in African higher education (UNESCO/BREDA, 1992). In the overview chapter of this book, Thiam (1992b) identifies several "critical problems" as being of particular significance for the future of African higher education: excessively rapid growth of enrolments; inadequate facilities and equipment; the need for human resource development (including improving qualifications and pedagogical skills of teachers, improving the conditions of work in African universities, and improving the fit between higher education and the world of work); and making institutions more cost-effective. One approach would be to build research projects around the three more general rubrics under which research addressing these problems fall: finance and management; teaching and curriculum; and faculty development.
Research Needed on Higher Education in Developing Countries
Three very similar themes were used to structure
the deliberations of a forum of experts on higher education research in
developing countries sponsored jointly by UNESCO and the University of
Pittsburgh in 1991 (Spaulding, et al., 1991). Representatives from
more than twenty nations around the world (including Kenya, Ethiopia, Mali,
Malawi, and Liberia) focused their attention on higher education in developing
countries, more generally, to identify those areas in which research was
particularly needed. Sessions covered the following three specific
sets of topics: (1) policy, administration, management, and governance;
(2) curriculum, teaching, and instructional technology; and (3) student
and academic staff development and evaluation.
Given the ease with which the majority of issues raised in the sources cited can be categorized into one of these three topical areas, it seems quite reasonable to use them to structure our research programme. We also believe it is important to be attentive to the pressing concerns that are common across all of them. We recognize the importance of framing our work in an explicitly African context, as well as the necessity to focus our efforts on a manageable set of projects. Consequently, we will provide a brief discussion of the range of issues identified by African scholars for each area, focus on the significance of several common themes for higher education in Kenya, and then describe the particular problems which we propose to address.
1. Policy, Administration, Management, and Governance
Two pressing issues in African higher education are the management of student flow and finance (M. Thiam, 1992b), including the assessment of cost-effectiveness. Both of these issues can be addressed through the development, implementation, and efficient use of information systems (Seye-Sylla, 1992; C.T. Thiam, 1992; Fall, 1992). In this regard, evaluation and auditing mechanisms are extremely important. A third issue of significant interest in higher education is an analysis of governance structures, including the involvement of students (Taiwo, 1992).
2. Curriculum, Teaching, and Instructional Technology
There is a serious need to provide teachers at the tertiary level with adequate pedagogical skills (Mohammedbhai, 1992). This could be supplemented by establishing an information and documentation system on pedagogy to enable timely access to materials. Pedagogical preparation is also necessary for postgraduate students who are planning to become teachers (Taiwo, 1992). With respect to instructional technology, there is a need to investigate new ways of delivering instruction, including the use of both audio and video materials, as well as other techniques of distance education (M. Thiam, 1992b). Distance education is one way to improve enrolment management that might be used to alleviate the types of problems created by "double intake" (admitting two different groups of students at the same time) in Kenya where students have been forced to sit as long as a year at a time between beginning and subsequent years of instruction because campus capacity has been exceeded (Sall, 1992). Table 1 shows that enrolment in the public universities of Kenya increased by almost 75 percent between 1986 and 1987, and more than doubled between 1987 and 1992! It is also important that consideration be given to establishing readily accessible communications links with scientists around the world via international computer networks (Fall, 1992). This would improve greatly researchers' access to current information about ongoing studies.
3. Student and Academic Staff Development and Evaluation
There is a need to collect more systematic data about student progress in African higher education (Sall, 1992). This would include developing profiles of admitted students, follow-up studies to determine rates of dropout and time to completion of degrees, and research on student socialization. Another area of concern has to do with evaluating the quality of instruction, including establishing a systematic way of obtaining both student and peer assessments of teaching (Kone, 1992). "Tracer" studies of graduates need to be done to provide information about the success with which students in higher education are being prepared to enter the world of work (Obanya, 1992), including rates of unemployment.
Careers of academic staff, particularly mobility and "brain drain," present urgent problems for African higher education (M. Thiam, 1992a; Ishumi, 1992). The conditions of work for academic staff need to be examined in order to develop strategies for retaining highly qualified teachers who find more lucrative opportunities outside of higher education (M. Thiam, 1992b), and often outside their native countries. Studies are also needed to determine the status of continuing professional development for academic staff (M. Thiam, 1992b). Finally, mechanisms need to be established to provide opportunities for research training, both of experienced teachers and of postgraduate students (Mohammedbhai, 1992).
Higher Education in Kenya: Significant Themes
The foregoing list of issues suggests five common themes which are particularly significant when considering areas for research on higher education in Kenya. Not surprisingly, these five themes also appear throughout recently published materials on higher education in Africa: (1) access and gender equity (Alele-Williams, 1992; Lamptey, 1992); (2) increasing the use of technology to improve management, instruction, and research (Fall, 1992); (3) providing continuing professional development for academic staff (both teaching and research) and administrators (Mohammedhai, 1992; M. Thiam, 1992b); (4) establishing the capacity for reform and innovation through systematic planning and policy analysis (Taiwo, 1992); and (5) diversifying finance (Koso-Thomas, 1992).
1. Access and Gender Equity
With respect to access, virtually all (94%) children in Kenya enter primary school. However, only half of the original entering students are still enroled at the end of primary school. Because just half of the primary school leavers gain admission to secondary school, there is an effective secondary school enrolment ratio of 24% of the nation's young people of secondary school age (Opondo & Noormohamed, 1989, p. 88). In 1990, there were enough available university places for just 7.5% of the secondary school leavers (Mwiria & Nyukuri, 1992, pp. 17-18), so the effective university enrolment ratio was less than 2% of university age Kenyans. Despite the rapid expansion of enrolments in higher education in Kenya over the thirty years since independence that is shown in Table 1, the system still can accommodate only a very small fraction of the nation's young people.
According to Table 1, virtually equal numbers of boys and girls begin primary school in Kenya. However, by secondary school, there are 1.33 boys for every girl. The public university sex ratio is double that of secondary schools at 2.68 males for every female! Only for the Teachers' College sector of higher education is there reasonable gender equity (1.15 males per female). There are many cultural reasons for the low participation of women in African higher education, especially traditional family patterns which emphasize that the proper role of women is to stay in the home and care for their families (Alele-Williams, 1992). Parents often discourage their daughters from obtaining advanced education (beginning as early as the transition from primary into secondary school) because they believe potential husbands will not be interested in marrying highly educated women (Lamptey, 1992). Many parents are also more willing to pay school fees for sons than for daughters because after marriage women are considered members of their husbands' families.
Many strategies for increasing the participation of women in higher education have been advocated, e.g., counseling and the creation of awareness of educational opportunities among girls, re-orienting attitudes of male counterparts, changing attitudes of parents, reforming organizational management practices that exclude women from senior administrative posts in African higher education, development of an indigenous women's movement, and government promulgation and enforcement of affirmative action policies (Lamptey, 1992). There continues to be much room for improvement with respect to gender equity in Kenyan higher education. More research is needed in order to gain fuller understanding of the complex set of factors that lead women to complete higher education in Africa.
Table 2 shows the distribution of academic courses of study for first-time undergraduates who enroled in 1992/93. For both genders, the most popular courses were B.Ed.(Arts) and Arts. The combination of Science and B.Ed.(Science) was the next most popular, also for both genders. Only for B.Ed.(Home Economics/Home Science Technology) did women outnumber men, and there were almost equal numbers choosing Cultural Studies. While an arts (social science or humanities) emphasis was being pursued by almost half of all undergraduates entering Kenyan public universities in 1992/93, there were also substantial numbers studying science, engineering, and business management/commerce. This distribution of academic courses suggests that the universities are contributing to the goal of educating students according to their expressed academic interests as well as filling the high-level manpower needs of a developing nation. More needs to be known, however, about the experiences encountered by graduates as they try to negotiate the labor market.
2. Increased Use of Technology
Most African universities have very limited access to modern computing and communications technology, so it is increasingly difficult for teachers and students to keep abreast of current developments in their academic areas. As financial constraints and the complexity of managing financial resources increase, having access to relevant computer soft- and hardware could greatly improve financial management in African higher education. Universities should also be in the forefront of helping to plan and develop national and international communication systems in order to facilitate rapid dissemination of information as well as to keep up-to-date with current literature in the academic disciplines (Fall, 1992). Given the budget constraints of most African universities, it is important to investigate technological needs from both an intra- and an inter-institutional perspective so that strategies for equipment acquisition and seeking donor funding can maximize their impact across the entire range of instructional (including library), research, and public service activities. Of course, advanced communications technology requires access to a reliable, efficient, and affordably priced telephone system. Improving outmoded telecommunications systems should be a major government priority.
3. Continuing Professional Development of Academic Staff (Teaching and Research) and Administrators
It has been suggested that the quality of research produced in African universities is rather poor, not only due to the lack of adequate funds and facilities, but also because teachers are not well-prepared to do research (M. Thiam, 1992b). Consideration must be given to the strategies that might be used to improve research training, including the advantages and disadvantages of sending people abroad for study as opposed to organizing local training programs and the consequences of each for "brain drain" (the failure of highly trained personnel to return to their home countries following completion of their programs). While studies have been done of the types of research training occurring (Mohammedbhai, 1992), there is a need to investigate the effectiveness of these activities for both academic staff and students. Academic staff must also remain up-to-date in their knowledge of the fields in which they are teaching (M. Thiam, 1992b) by being able to obtain access to books, current journals, and other materials. There should also be resources to support academic staff travel for participation in professional conferences and training programmes.
Because of limited student access to textbooks and other instructional materials, academic staff in many fields must deliver the primary content of courses through classroom instruction. Consequently, it is very important that teachers be skilled in the pedagogy of higher education. Because little is known about the effectiveness of different types of pedagogical approaches in African higher education, it would be useful to investigate the pedagogical issues that are unique to higher education in the African context with an aim of building models and programs for improving teaching by academic staff.
4. Establishing Capacity for Reform and Innovation
Because the post-colonial history of African higher education is relatively brief, it is important to build the capacity for continual reform and innovation so that its vitality and productivity can be enhanced (Taiwo, 1992). This would certainly include developing alternative modes of instructional delivery (including distance education); evaluating and using results to modify programs (including paying attention to content and facility duplication); and developing strategies for the acquisition and maintenance of necessary instructional materials and equipment. It would also include forging more democratic governance structures in which teachers, other staff, and even students participate in significant decision-making processes such as the recommendation of candidates for administrative appointments. Assessment and analysis of different types of governance and organizational structures in African higher education is needed.
Reform and innovation need to be based on a firm foundation of planning and policy analysis at both instiutional and national levels. A wide variety of statistical data are collected routinely by the government, but they tend not to be used for systematic analysis. There needs to be better use of the many knowledgeable and highly skilled academics in Kenyan universities for providing expert advice on policy options. There has been a tendency to bring in external consultants to do projects that could be done by people already working in Kenya. Examples are the three research projects recently let for bid by the Kenya Commission for Higher Education, using World Bank loan funds: (a) graduate labor market survey (focus on employment, unemployment, and underemployment); (b) alternative funding models for higher education, including private institutions; and (c) women in higher education, access and equity. Given the type of public bidding procedure involved, it is quite likely that the projects will be awarded to foreign consultants. It would be unfortunate if these projects are not awarded to academic and research staff in the universities of Kenya where considerable relevant expertise exists and where the studies could also provide training opportunities and contribute to the development of institutional research capacity.
In addition, greater attention needs to be paid to the study of implementation of reform and innovation. Research should be conducted on the social, political, and economic processes of implementation. There should also be careful evaluation of the outcomes, both intended and unintended. Results from such evaluations should be used both to monitor the progress of reform and to make modifications necessary for effective implementation of initiatives.
5. Diversifying Finance
Over the past five years, there has been a sharp decrease in the proportion of the Kenya national budget for recurrent (e.g., salaries, pensions, benefits, utilities, facilities maintenance, etc.) expenditures that is being allocated for education. In 1988/89, education received 38% of the total recurrent budget funds (Maina, 1989, p. 110). In 1992/93, estimated recurrent government expenditures for education were only 18% of the total national recurrent budget (Republic of Kenya, 1993, p. 88). While a natural tendency is to blame the government for neglecting education, this is not entirely fair because other international agencies (most notably, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund) are staunch advocates of "structural adjustment" policies. These policies require that national budgets be structured in such a way that the broad spectrum of national development needs are addressed. What this has meant, in practice, is pressure on developing countries to reduce expenditures in historically high-cost areas such as education and human services so that more funds can be allocated to other development needs, e.g., making infrastructure (especially transportation, communication, and resource management) improvements that are necessary to facilitate national development.
It cannot be said that the government in Kenya is failing to spend a significant amount on higher education. To the contrary, in 1992/93 higher education was allocated 19% of the total national recurrent budget and just over half (56%) of the government's development (e.g., funds for buildings, equipment, and other capital investment) budget (Republic of Kenya, 1993, p. 184). Clearly, the government of Kenya is conforming to external expectations that its budgetary policies reflect efforts at structural adjustment. Even so, higher education is being funded much more generously than any other level of education. Table 3 shows Kenya government expenditures per student in 1992/93, calculated by dividing the Ministry of Education recurrent budget figures (Republic of Kenya, 1993, p. 184) by the enrolment figures shown in Table 1. According to Table 3, national recurrent expenditures per student in public universities for 1992/93 were 46 times higher than those for each primary school student. It should be remembered that projected 1992/93 government "development" expenditures for universities were quite high and, hence, may not be repeated in the near future. Taking both the recurrent and development parts of the Ministry of Education budget together, per capita expenditures per student in public universities were an astonishing 68 times greater than those for each primary school student.
Despite the overall decrease between 1987/88 and 1992/93 in the proportion of total government funding for education, the per capita student expenditure ratio between university and primary education, when based on recurrent expenditures only, did not change between 1987/88 when it was 47 (Opondo & Noormohamed, 1989, p. 92) and 1992/93 when it was 46. Given this pattern, it is unlikely that the proportion of government expenditures allocated to higher education will increase significantly over the next several years. Consequently, it is necessary for universities to begin exploring alternative sources of funds and developing strategies of "cost-sharing."
Ten options for "widening and diversifying sources of finance" (Woodhall, 1993, pp. 8-10; 1991) are (a) charging students for tuition and/or other types of fees (e.g., registration, examination, etc.); (b) charging students a larger share of actual board and lodging costs (including reducing governmental stipends for student housing and other personal expenses); (c) encouraging the establishment and growth of private institutions within a context of effective government regulation (James, 1991); (d) deferred cost recovery (e.g., payroll tax paid by employers of graduates); (e) work-study aid or national service programs; (f) business sponsorship of students; (g) contracting for consulting and applied research with industry, commerce, and government; (h) sales of goods and services; (i) private contributions and endowments, including gifts from alumni and staff as well as from business and industry; and (j) student loans or other forms of deferred payment.
In Kenya, only 20-25 percent of students ever pay back their loans (Woodhall, 1991, p. 55). This is unfortunate, since repayment replenishes the loan fund, and as such, can be thought of as an investment in future generations of students who will be contributing to national development. The failure to recover loan funds from Kenyan students is due to lack of both strong legal sanctions and an effective collection agency. If cost-sharing and cost-effectiveness are underlying goals, a higher education student loan program should have the following characteristics:
First, a deferred payment program requires the participation of a credible collection institution with incentives to collect, which in most instances required the direct participation of commercial banks, a taxation department or a social security agency...Second, with loans, there must be a willingness to charge interest rates equal to or above inflation in order to minimize subsidies...Third, the relationship between necessary repayments and the likely income of students must be examined to ensure that repayment burdens never pose an excessive burden on graduates...Fourth, developing a means of targeting support to needier and more academically deserving students will be crucial to a program's efficiency...Fifth, loan losses can be justified if there are potential social gains that would not be reflected in a graduate's income (Albrecht & Ziderman, 1992, p. 100).
Institutions must be financially autonomous, as well as able to control and monitor their own expenditures (preferably with a computerized financial accounting system). They must also be able to keep revenue generated and not return it to the government or have subsequent budget allocations reduced by the amount of the revenue (Woodhall, 1993, p. 12). Institutions must also receive their funds (government allocation, other revenue) in a timely and regular way (Passi, 1992). More research is needed on different patterns of higher education finance in Africa. It is important to emphasize that cost recovery is not meant to substitute for effective government funding policy which provides funds for investment in tandem with funds for systematic maintenance of facilities and equipment, for acquisition of library materials and teaching resources, and for institutional development:
...in practice, cost recovery operates in tandem with, and complements, state subsidy of higher education. Characterizing a system as one of cost recovery in practice relates to the breadth of student coverage of fees and their size in relation to costs (Albrecht and Ziderman, 1992, p. 11).
Proposed Research Agenda
Having considered both the pressing concerns and the cross-cutting issues that are mentioned consistently in the materials reviewed, the following specific projects are suggested as possibilities from which to select a few manageable studies to begin the proposed Centre for Research on Higher Education in Kenya and East Africa:
1. History and Current Status of Higher Education in Kenya and East Africa
a. A History of Higher Education in East Africa. Now that three decades have passed since Kenya's independence, it is appropriate to explore the history of the development of higher education in the post-colonial period. That history is, of course, tied closely to the pre-colonial situation in which there was a single university in East Africa, Makerere University in Kampala, Uganda. This project would explore the historical, social, political, economic, and legal factors that were central to the development of higher education in East Africa. Specific attention would be paid to an analysis of the patterns in which emerging nationalism was reflected in the development of higher education systems in each East African country, especially their roots in Makerere University.
b. A "Sector Study" of Higher Education in Kenya and East Africa. This would be modeled after the recently completed "Mongolia Education and Human Resources Sector Study" (Weidman, 1993) funded by the Asian Development Bank. The project would involve compiling a comprehensive description of the higher education system in Kenya, including up-to-date data on student enrolment trends in different types of higher education institutions (e.g., Table 1). It would also include data on distribution of students by major, numbers of graduates by major, degree completion rates, numbers of teaching staff, faculty experience and academic qualifications, and financial status of higher education in Kenya. Whenever possible, these data will be reported by student gender. It is anticipated that much of this information could be obtained from published reports, though meetings with representatives from the Ministry of Education may also be necessary. Such a study is important because it provides specific "baseline" data about a country's higher education system. We would propose to conduct such a "higher education sector study" for each of the six countries in East Africa.
2. Academic Staff Development
a. Conditions of Work for Faculty in East African Higher Education. The goal of this project is to provide new information about the characteristics and working conditions of faculty. Data would be collected on a number of characteristics: academic qualifications, discipline or academic field, salary, satisfaction with work, etc. (Sall, 1992). In order to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort and provide the basis for broader international comparison, the survey instrument from the recently completed international survey of the professoriate funded by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching would be used. Egypt was the only African country included in the Carnegie Foundation study.
b. Interinstitutional Mobility of Academic Staff and "Brain Drain". It is time to update our knowledge of this phenomenon. The data used in a recent study, while interesting, are not particularly current (Ishumi, 1992). A study is needed in which recently departing faculty are interviewed to learn about their reasons for exiting their positions in East Africa for more lucrative posts elsewhere. Also included would be an investigation of the role of international organizations in attracting professors away from their native lands (Spaulding, et al., 1991). This research topic might also yield information that is relevant for a study of "brain drain."
c. A Study of Teachers' Pedagogical Techniques Much has been written about the problems with the quality of teaching at universities all over the world (Sall, 1992). The purpose of this project would be to investigate systematically the approaches used by teachers to present course material to students with the objective of improving the quality of instruction in African higher education. The German Foundation for International Development (DSE) sponsored a seminar on pedagogy in higher education at the then Kenyatta University College in 1982, but there is a continuing need for research in this area. Also included under this general rubric would be studies of the relationship among curriculum, instructional delivery, and actual student learning, including whether or not students rely entirely on their teachers at the expense of individual initiative and autonomy.
d. Design of a System for Evaluation of Teaching. There is a need to develop a comprehensive system for the evaluation and improvement of teaching. This would entail both student and peer assessment of teaching. We are proposing to conduct a survey of what students like and dislike in teachers to be used, along with other information about higher education pedagogy derived from the research literature, for developing a system in which students (Kone, 1992) and teaching staff colleagues periodically evaluate teachers.
3. Student Development
a. Barriers to the Participation of Women in Higher Education in East Africa. This project would involve an analysis of the influences on young women either to attend or to leave higher education. It would also investigate barriers to completion of higher education that are experienced by women (Lamptey, 1992).
b. Preparation of Undergraduate Students for Higher Education. The purpose of this study is to investigate the extent to which faculty believe that entering students are adequately prepared for their studies in higher education. It would include analysis of data on the academic qualifications of entering first year students as well as consideration of the national secondary school examination in Kenya.
c. Student Life on Campus. This would be an investigation of what undergraduates experience during the course of their degree programs. The study would include but not be limited to such things as adjustment to university life, student activism, students' access to teachers, and their perceptions of student services provided by their institution. Data would be collected through questionnaires as well as through more qualitative, observational techniques.
4. Higher Education and Employment
a. A "Tracer Study" of Recent Kenya College Graduates. This type of study is designed to do at least two things: one is to gather information on post-graduation employment status (e.g., type of job, salary and benefits, relationship to their major field of study, etc.); and the other is to get an idea of how relevant students believe their higher education curriculum is for employment (Spaulding, et al., 1991).
b. A Survey of Employers of Kenya College Students. This is the opposite approach to a "tracer study," namely, gathering data from employers of recent university graduates about their perceptions of the relevance of higher education for their particular sector of the economy. Both studies provide information about the "employability" of university graduates (Sall, 1992).
c. A Study of the Fit between National
Manpower Needs and University Admissions by Major Field. This study
would analyze admission and enrolment patterns by major, focusing on the
extent to which the distribution of anticipated major fields will provide
highly educated people in sufficient numbers to meet national manpower
needs.
5. Policy, Reform, and Management
a. Linkages between Research and Policy Formation. This particular topic (Spaulding, et al., 1991) is one that should be addressed at the level of the national Ministry of Education. The proposed study would investigate, among other things, the extent to which "expert" advice from faculty members is incorporated into legislative policy-making.
b. Academic Research Networks. Such a study would be designed to investigate the ways in faculty establish linkages with colleagues both within and outside their own universities. Strengths and weaknesses of such linkages would also be assessed and recommendations made for establishing research networks that focus on African problems and issues.
c. Patterns of Institutional Governance. This study would be an investigation of the various ways in which academicians, other staff, and students (Taiwo, 1992) participate in decision-making. It would investigate actual patterns of participation as well as the perceptions of students, staff, and administrators about the realms in which various institutional constituencies should participate in governance and policy formulation. Consideration will also be given to issues of institutional autonomy.
d. Effectiveness of Management Training Abroad. This study would investigate the perceived relevance of management training abroad by interviewing university administrators who received some or all of their preparation outside of Africa.
e. Use of Technology for Financial Management. Problems with finance are endemic to African universities. National governments are often slow in providing funds to higher education institutions, and they frequently reduce originally budgeted amounts (See Passi, 1993, for a case study of financial management at Makerere University, Uganda.). In addition, accounting tends to be done with paper and pencil methods rather than through the use of computer software. The purpose of this project is to investigate the extent to which automated methods of financial management are used in East African universities and assess the feasibility of implementing computerized systems where they do not currently exist.
f. Use of Technology for Cataloging Library Holdings. There is a serious problem with the accessibility of library materials in those institutions where there are no central catalogs of all holdings. The purpose of this project would be to describe the types of technology in use in East African universities and then assess the cost-effectiveness of each type.
Given budgetary and other constraints, it has become increasingly important that our efforts are directed toward establishing a research centre that is of the highest quality possible, involving experienced researchers as well as providing training for faculty and postgraduate students (Mohammedbhai, 1992), conducting multi-disciplinary investigations, maximizing communication and dissemination of results (Fall, 1992), and including collaborative relationships with researchers in sister institutions (Olsson, 1992).
Tentative Timetable: Years 1 and 2
The Centre for Research on Higher Education in Kenya and East Africa began preliminary operation in October of 1993 within the Institute of Research and Postgraduate Studies (IRPS) with the present research programme prospectus as its first project. Funding for this initial stage of development was provided by UNESCO and enabled the appointment of Professor John C. Weidman from the University of Pittsburgh (USA) as UNESCO Chair of Higher Education Research. In January of 1994, a permanent Co-ordinator of the Centre will be appointed by the IRPS Director, Professor Bethwell A. Ogot.
In order to provide a strong academic base for, and to attract postgraduate students to work in, the proposed research programme, IRPS expects to establish a Masters Degree Programme in Higher Education Administration. The basic components of this programme will be (a) historical foundations of African higher education, (b) administration and finance, (c) planning and policy, (d) teaching and curriculum, (f) student life, and (g) research (Fife, 1991). Postgraduate students will be required to do a masters thesis on an issue in African higher education for which they will be also be encouraged to join one of the ongoing projects in the Centre. There are sufficient academic staff already working at Maseno University College to mount this masters degree programme.
It is anticipated that by the end of the initial five-year period needed to complete the proposed research programme, both the masters degree programme and the Centre will be firmly established and in full operation. The following is a tentative timetable for the first two years of the period:
January - April, 1994
a. Appointment of Co-Ordinator, IRPS Centre for Research on Higher
Education in Kenya and East Africa
b. Development of IRPS Masters Degree Programme in Higher Education
Administration
c. Continuation of Work on First Two Research Projects:
"History of Higher Education in Kenya" (Professor Bethwell A.
Ogot, Principal Investigator)
"Higher Education in Kenya: A Sector Study" (Professor John
C. Weidman, Principal Investigator)
d. Establishment of Relationships with Researchers on Higher
Education at Other Universities in Kenya and Neighboring Countries
e. Identification of Potential Funding Sources and Submission
of Research Funding Proposal to Donor Agencies
May - August, 1994
a. Approval of, Recruitment of Students for, IRPS Masters Degree
Programme in Higher Education Administration
b. Initiation of Third Research Project, Continuation of Ongoing
Projects
September - December, 1994
a. Initiation of IRPS Masters Degree Programme in Higher Education
Administration, Enrolment of First Students
b. Secure Funding for Higher Education Research Programme
c. Initiation of Fourth Research Project, Continuation of Ongoing
Projects
d. Institutionalize Capacity for Research and Training in IRPS
Centre for Research on Higher Education in Kenya and East Africa, Initiation
of Seminar on the Writing of Research Proposals
January - December, 1995
a. Complete First Two Research Projects, Continue Ongoing Projects
b. Continuation of IRPS Masters Degree Programme in Higher Education
Administration
c. Continuation of Fund-raising Efforts
d. Initiate New Research Projects as Funds Become Available
e. Initiate IRPS Centre Seminar Series on Research Methods
Inter-Institutional Cooperation
While we believe that collaborative arrangements can be established with non-African researchers which will facilitate the work being done (King, 1990; Brown, 1992), significant linkages with researchers in the East African region are essential in order to address effectively the particular problems of higher education in an African context. Consequently, we have invited the following individuals to explore with us ways of contributing to and participating in the proposed programme of research:
Professor Abel G.M. Ishumi
Researcher on Higher Education in East Africa (Ishumi, 1992)
University of Dar-es-Salaam
Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania
Mr. Kabiru Kinyanjui
Participant in 1991 UNESCO-University of Pittsburgh Forum of
Experts on Higher Education Research (Spaulding, et al., 1991)
Senior Programme Officer
Social Science Division
International Development Research Center
P.O. Box 62084
Nairobi, Kenya
Professor Kilemi Mwiria
Researcher on Higher Education in Kenya (Mwiria and Nyukuri,
1992)
Bureau of Educational Research
Kenyatta University
P.O. Box 43844
Nairobi, Kenya
Professor F.O. Passi
Researcher on Higher Education in Uganda (Passi, 1992)
Department of Educational Foundations and Management
Makerere University
P.O. Box 7062
Kampala, Uganda
The foregoing is by no means an exhaustive list. It is meant to suggest the sorts of researchers from East African countries we would hope to involve in our work. Of course, we will also involve colleagues here at Maseno University College whose interests and expertise are relevant for specific projects undertaken as part of the research programme.
Professor John C. Weidman (Professor of Higher
Education at the University of Pittsburgh, USA) will continue his work
with the Institute of Research and Postgraduate Studies (IRPS), Centre
for Research on Higher Education in Kenya and East Africa, after his appointment
as UNESCO Chair of Higher Education Research has been completed.
He will also seek to involve other researchers from his university in order
to develop and maintain a continuing institutional affiliation in the spirit
of the UNESCO UNITWIN Programme.
The Regional Development Context: Kenya and East Africa
Kenya and its neighboring East African countries are in a very poor economic condition. Table 4 shows selected data on the development status of the six contiguous East African countries. Kenya is just above the mean in per capita GNP for low- and middle-income countries in Subsaharan Africa, but all of the bordering countries except Sudan are considerably below the regional mean. The region is characterized by high rates of adult illiteracy. Hence, it is important that there be serious consideration of investment in research that will enhance the capacity of universities in the region to further national development. Further, the Treaty for East African Cooperation, signed 30 November 1993, will facilitate work among universities in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. This treaty specifically identifies education, research, and communications as important areas for cooperation. In that regard, the town of Maseno lies in Western Kenya near Lake Victoria and, as such, is strategically located between Kampala and Dar-Es-Salaam on reasonably good ground transportation routes.
The Institutional Context: Maseno University College
Maseno University College was created as a constituent college of Moi University in 1990. The new institution occupies the contiguous facilities of the former Siriba Teachers' College and Maseno Government Training Institute (G.T.I.). It was established to help accommodate the demand for higher education in Kenya due to a large increase in the numbers of students who qualified for admission to higher education but could not all be absorbed by the facilities already existing in the four public universities (Nairobi, Kenyatta, Moi, and Egerton). This sudden increase in demand for higher education was the direct result of completing the transition from a British-style (7:4:2) primary and secondary school system (followed by a 3-year bachelors degree curriculum in higher education) to an American-style (8:4) system (followed by a 4-year bachelors degree curriculum). Because of this shift, there were two cohorts of high school graduates waiting for university admission, one that completed a 13-year preparation and one that completed a 12-year preparation.
The first class of 1600 students was admitted in September of 1990 (all in year 1 of a 3-year Bachelor of Education degree course). This first group of undergraduates completed two years of their program, and then two groups of 500 students were admitted into the new 4-year bachelors degree curriculum. putting a severe strain on the capacity of the institution. Because the curriculum is structured and sequenced in year-long blocks, this "double intake" required that the initial group of third year students wait until January of 1994 to begin their final year of study which is to be completed the following August (see Mwiria and Nyukuri, 1992, for a description of how "double intakes" are managed). Beginning with the 1994-95 academic year, the 3-year bachelors degree curriculum will cease and there will be approximately equal numbers of students (500 students per year) enroled in each of the first three years of the new curriculum. The fourth group of students admitted into the new 4-year bachelors degree curriculum will begin their studies in 1995 and the first graduates will be in 1996.
The institution opened with its primary emphasis on the preparation of teachers for secondary schools. It is anticipated that, as the institution matures, it will develop into a full-fledged university with a variety of majors in the arts and sciences as well as education. Instruction is provided by three Faculties (Education, Science, and Arts) and the Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies. As a "University College," the faculty are also authorized to supervise postgraduate students at both the masters and Ph.D. levels, but these degrees are officially awarded by Moi University. Postgraduate work is organized and co-ordinated by the Institute for Research and Postgraduate Studies (IRPS) through a Board that includes, in addition to the Director and Deputy Director of IRPS, representative from the Maseno Academic Board, chairpersons of the academic departments, other faculty representatives, the Head of Library Services, and the Moi University Dean of Graduate Studies. Most of the professors came to Maseno from faculty positions in other universities and a large proportion hold advanced degrees from institutions in Europe and the United States.
Institute of Research and Postgraduate Studies
In addition to its responsibility for the organization and co-ordination of all postgraduate studies at Maseno University College, the Institute of Research and Postgraduate Studies (IRPS) is responsible for managing external funding for graduate student and academic staff research. It is also building research capacity through the establishment of three theme-oriented Research Centres with initial funding from UNESCO through its UNITWIN and UNESCO Chairs programmes. The present prospectus, developed with the assistance of the first UNESCO Chair, is for the Centre for Research on Higher Education. The other two are the Centre for Advanced Training in Social and Human Sciences, and the Centre for Research in Natural Sciences and Technology Development. It is intended that these Research Centres focus on Kenya and the East African region, be multi-disciplinary in nature, and provide opportunities for both postgraduate student and academician research.
IRPS has begun building a collection of library materials to support this Research Centre, including books and reports on higher education in Africa (e.g., UNESCO/BREDA, 1992) as well as other parts of the world (e.g., Spaulding, et al., 1991), research methodology (e.g., Bourguignon and Lang, 1991: Coombs and Hallek, 1987; Kells, 1991; Light, et al., 1990; Mingat and Tan, 1988; Pigozzi and Cieutat, 1988), and national development (e.g, World Bank, 1991). A part-time librarian will be assigned to catalog these materials early inn 1994. Equipment housed in the IRPS includes two word processing typewriters, a laptop computer with printer, and a FAX machine.
Anticipated Resource Needs
In order to conduct the proposed program of research, we will need the following resources:
A. Staff
1. 2 Half-time Research Associates. These could be lecturers who are looking for a dissertation topic and would like to use one of the projects for that purpose. They could also be Kenyans studying in foreign universities who wish to do their dissertations on African higher education. African doctoral students studying in the USA can apply for dissertation research funding from either the Rockefeller Foundation (Scholars on Education Re-Entry Program) or the African Development Fund. Recent degree recipients returning to Kenya are also eligible for the Rockefeller Foundation program. At least one of these two people should be skilled in the use of computer statistical software.
2. 2 Professors on Specific Assignment to a Research Project. These professors should receive a reduction in their teaching loads for the period during which they are assigned to a project. These appointments should be used to encourage multi-disciplinary research.
3. 1 Full-time Secretary. This should be a person skilled in word processing and desktop publishing for production of research reports and other materials.
4. 2 Office Helpers. These people would provide general assistance to projects.
B. Equipment
1. 1 IBM-compatible 486 DX2 (66) desktop computer with a 300 megabyte hard drive, 3.5" and 5.25" high density disk drives, an internal modem (14,400 baud), and a CD ROM drive. With the proper software, this machine would be adequate for virtually all data processing needs of the research projects and could also be used for desktop publishing.
2. 1 Laser Printer. This should be sufficiently sophisticated to handle anticipated desktop publishing needs.
3. Software (the most current versions available)
a. Operating
System: DOS and WINDOWS
b. Word
Processing: WordPerfect or MS-Word
c. Desktop
Publishing: Pagemaker
d. Spreadsheet:
Lotus 1-2-3 or QuattroPro
e. Database:
DBASEIV
f. Presentation:
Lotus Symphony
g. Statistical
Analysis: SPSS PC
h. Graphics:
Harvard Graphics
i. Other
Software as Determined by the Projects
4. Photocopying Machine and Toner Cartridges
C. Materials
1. Books Relevant for the Various Projects
2. Computerized (CD ROM) Research Literature Databases
3. Reprints and Copies of Articles from Research Journals
4. Paper for Reproducing Reports
References
Albrecht, Douglas and Adrian Ziderman. 1992 (August). Financing Universities in Developing Countries. Washington, D.C.: Education and Employment Division, Population and Human Resources Department, The World Bank (Document No. PHREE/92/61).
Alele-Williams, Grace. 1992. "Major Constraints to Women's Access to Higher Education in Africa." Pp. 71-76 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
Bourguignon, Francois, and Christine Lang. 1991. Education and Development: Some Research Directions. Issues and Methodologies in Educational Development: An IIEP Series for Orientation and Training, 2. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning (UNESCO).
Brown, James A. 1992. "Educational Innovation in Developing Countries: Some Considerations for the International Consultant." Canadian and International Education/Education canadienne et internationale, 21 (No. 1): 44-54.
Consultation of Experts on Future Trends and Challenges of Higher Education in Africa. 1992. "Appendix: Plan of Action, 1992-2002." Pp. 325-334 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
Coombs, Philip A., and Jacques Hallak. 1987. Cost Analysis in Education: A Tool for Policy and Planning. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press (Published for the World Bank).
Fall, Brahim A. 1992. "Use of New Information and Communication Technologies and their Impact on the Management of Higher Education." Pp. 215-245 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
Fife, Jonathan D. 1991. "Course Offerings in Higher Education Doctoral Programs." Pp. 77-86 in Jonathan D. Fife and Lester F. Goodchild (Eds.). Administration as a Profession. New Directions for Higher Education, Number 76 (Winter). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ishumi, Abel G.M. 1992. "Mobility of Teachers, Researchers, and Students: The Case of Eastern and Southern Africa." Pp. 257-280 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
James, Estelle. 1991. Private Finance and Management of Education in Developing Countries: Major Policy and Research Issues. Issues and Methodologies in Education Development: An IIEP Series for Orientation and Training, 5. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning (UNESCO).
Kells, H.R. 1991. The Assessment of Managerial Effectiveness at Universities in Developing Countries: A Case Analysis. Issues and Methodologies in Educational Development: An IIEP Series for Orientation and Training, 6. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning (UNESCO).
King, Kenneth. 1990. "The New Politics of International Collaboration in Educational Development: Northern and Southern Research in Education." International Journal of Educational Development, 10 (No. 1): 47-57.
Kone, Pierrette. 1992. "Evaluation of Courses, Students, and Programmes." Pp. 173-191 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
Koso-Thomas, K. 1992. "Innovative Ways of Financing Higher Education in Africa." Pp. 121-133 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
Lamptey, Alice Sena. 1992. "Promoting Women's Participation in Teaching, Research, and Management in African Universities." Pp. 77-94 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
Light, Richard J., Judith D. Singer, and John B. Willett. 1990. By Design: Planning Research on Higher Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Maina, S.N. 1989. "Provision of Education through Cost-sharing." Annex 5 (pp. 109-113) in J.E.O. Odada and L.O. Odhiambo (Eds.), Report of the Proceeding of the Workshop on Cost-sharing in Kenya: Naivasha 29 March - 2 April 1989. Nairobi: UNICEF, Kenya Country Office, Ministry of Planning and National Development, and Kenyan Economic Association.
Mingat, Alain, and Jee-Ping Tan. 1988. Analytical Tools for Sector Work in Education. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press (Published for the World Bank).
Mohammedbhai, G.T.G. 1992. "A Review of Training Activities in African Universities." Pp. 137-156 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
Mwiria, Kilemi, and Mulati S. Nyukuri. 1992. "The Management of Double Intakes: A Case Study of Kenyatta University." Paris: International Institute of Educational Planning (UNESCO), Document IIEP/RP/49.13.
Obanya, Pai. 1992. "Future Prospects of Higher Education in Africa." Pp. 315-322 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
Olsson, B. 1992. The Ownership and Cultivation of Knowledge: The Rationale for Swedish Support to Universities in Developing Countries (10-28 Draft Document). Stockholm: Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries (SAREC) and Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA).
Opondo, Fred and Sodik Osman Noormohamed. 1989. "Cost-sharing in Education." Annex 4 (pp. 87-107) in J.E.O. Odada and L.O. Odhiambo (Eds.), Report of the Proceeding of the Workshop on Cost-sharing in Kenya: Naivasha 29 March - 2 April 1989. Nairobi: UNICEF, Kenya Country Office, Ministry of Planning and National Development, and Kenyan Economic Association.
Passi, F.O. 1992. "Implementing Change to Improve the Financial Management of Makerere University, Uganda." Paris: International Institute of Educational Planning (UNESCO), Document IIEP/RP/49.5.
Pigozzi, Mary Joy, and Victor J. Cieutat. 1988. Education and Human Resource Sector Assessment Manual. Tallahassee, FL: IEES, Educational Efficiency Clearing House, Learning Systems Institute, Florida State University.
Republic of Kenya. 1993. Economic Survey 1993. Central Bureau of Statistics, Office of the Vice President, and Ministry of Planning and National Development. Nairobi: Government Printer.
Republic of Kenya. 1989. Development Plan, 1989-1993. Nairobi: Government Printer.
Rondinelli, Dennis A., John Middleton, and Adriaan M. Verspoor. 1990. Planning Education Reforms in Developing Countries: The Contingency Approach. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
Sall, Cheikh Tidiane. 1992. "Pedagogical Management: A Fundamental Dimension of the Management of Higher Education Institutions." Pp. 193-212 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
Schofield, Allan. 1991. Improving the Effectiveness of the Management of Innovation and Change in Higher Education. Issues and Methodologies in Educational Development: An IIEP Series for Orientation and Training, 1. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning (UNESCO).
Seye-Sylla, Fatimata. 1992. "An Information System for Higher Education." Pp. 239-245 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
Spaulding, Seth, James Mauch, Stanley Nyirenda, Eugenie Potter, Paula Sabloff, and John Weidman. 1991. Research on Higher Education in Developing Countries: Suggested Agendas and Research Strategies. Final Report. UNESCO-University of Pittsburgh Forum of Experts on Research on Higher Education. Paris: UNESCO (New Papers on Higher Education - Meeting Documents 2) (Publication ED-91/WS-29).
Taiwo, Adediran A. 1992. "Innovations and Reforms in Higher Education in Africa: An Overview." Pp. 157-171 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
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Thiam, Magatte. 1992 (a). "A Comparative Survey of Postgraduate Studies in Francophone and Anglophone African Countries." Pp. 295-313 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office, 1992.
Thiam, Magatte. 1992 (b). "An Overview of Trends and Challenges of Higher Education in Africa." Pp. 19-41 in UNESCO/BREDA. Higher Education in Africa: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century. Dakar, Senegal, UNESCO Regional Office.
UNESCO. 1993. "Development of Higher Education in Africa: DAKAR Seminar (19-24 November 1992)." Priority: Africa Programme of Action proposed by the Director-General (1990-1995). In co-operation with the Association of African Universities (AAU) (Publication CAB-93/WS).
UNESCO. 1992. "Development of Higher Education in Africa: Accra Seminar (25-29 November 1991)." Priority: Africa Programme of Action proposed by the Director-General (1990-1995). In co-operation with the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the Association of African Universities (AAU) (Publication CAB-92/WS-1).
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______________________________________________________________________________
Table 1
Kenya Education Trends by Type of Institution, 1963-1992 (Selected Years)
______________________________________________________________________________
1963 1973
1983 1986
1987 1992 *
______________________________________________________________________________
Primary Schools
No. of Schools
6,058 6,932
11,966 13,347 13,849
15,465
Total Enrolment
(in thousands)
892 1,816
4,324 4,843
5,031 5,530
Sex Ratio **
192 130
108 108
107 103
Secondary Schools
No. of Schools
151 964
2,230 2,417
2,592 2,632
Total Enrolment 30,120
174,767 493,710 458,712 522,261
621,443
Sex Ratio **
215 204
148 141
144 133
Teachers' Colleges ***
No. of Institutions
37 21
21 22
22
25
Total Enrolment
4,119 8,905
13,657 15,644 17,817
18,992
Sex Ratio **
115
National Polytechnics
No. of Institutions
1
2
2
2
3
3
Total Enrolment
864 3,721
5,398 5,313
5,186 9,029
Institutes of Technology
No. of Institutions
1
4 16
16 17
Total Enrolment
110 456
4,694 4,248
5,633
Government Universities ****
No. of Institutions
1
1
1
4
4
4
Total Enrolment
571 5,149
9,223 10,143
17,538 41,062
Sex Ratio (1st Year
Students Only) **
268
______________________________________________________________________________
Notes: * All data for 1992 are "provisional," i.e., government
estimates (in recent years, very close to final figures). Total
1992 enrolments for Egerton, Kenyatta, and Nairobi Universities were
obtained from Economic Survey 1993. Data for Moi University
and constituent Maseno University College were obtained from the
respective academic registrars.
** Males per 100 females.
*** The drop in number was due to conversion of some into secondary
schools. By 1992, these colleges prepared only primary school teachers.
**** "Double intakes" (two different groups
of secondary school graduates admitted to university simultaneously)
occurred in 1987/88 and 1990/91.
Sources: Republic of Kenya. 1993. Economic Survey 1993. Central
Bureau of Statistics, Office of the Vice President, and Ministry
of Planning and National Development. Nairobi: Government Printer.
Republic of Kenya. 1989. Development Plan,
1989-1993. Nairobi: Government Printer.
__________________________________________________________________________
Table 2
Kenya First Year Undergraduate Enrolment in Public Universities, 1992/93
*
__________________________________________________________________________
Selected Courses **
Males % Females
% Total %
__________________________________________________________________________
Agriculture Education
73 1.0% 42
1.5% 115 1.1%
Agriculture ***
248 3.3% 110
4.0% 358 3.5%
Horticulture
91 1.2% 33
1.2% 124 1.2%
Arts
1440 19.4% 584 21.1%
2024 19.9%
Anthropology
151 2.0% 67
2.4% 218 2.1%
B.Ed.(Arts)
1913 25.8% 851 30.7%
2764 27.1%
B.Ed.(Science)
447 6.0% 116
4.2% 563 5.5%
B.Ed.(Home Economics/
7 .1% 134
4.8% 141 1.4%
Home Science Tech.)
Business Management/
440 5.9% 109 4.2%
549 5.4%
Commerce
Science
969 13.1% 273 9.9%
1242 12.2%
Engineering ****
380 5.1% 33
1.2% 413 4.1%
Veterinary Medicine
86 1.2% 14
.5% 100
1.0%
Medicine
129 1.7% 19
.7% 148
1.5%
Natural Resources
87 1.2% 15
.5% 102
1.0%
Animal Production
62 .8% 33
1.2%
95 .9%
Agriculture and Home
54 .7% 33
1.2%
87 .9%
Economics
Cultural Studies
131 1.7% 120 4.3%
251 2.5%
(Total Enrolment
(7418)
(2771)
(10,189)
for All Courses)
__________________________________________________________________________
Notes: * All data for 1992/93 are "provisional," i.e., government
estimates (in recent years, very close to final figures).
** Only those courses enroling more than 85 students are listed,
but the total in the bottom row is for all entering undergraduates.
*** Includes B.Sci.Agri., Food Science Tech., and Agri. Economics.
**** Includes civil, mechanical, electrical,
agricultural, and
building construction.
Source: Republic of Kenya. 1993. Economic Survey 1993. Nairobi: Government
Printer.
__________________________________________________________________________
Table 3
Kenya Recurrent Expenditures Per Student by Level of Education, 1992/93
*
__________________________________________________________________________
Education Ministry
Enrolment
Per Student
Recurrent Budget
Level
Expenditure
(Kenya Pounds)
(Kenya Pounds) **
__________________________________________________________________________
Primary Education 5,530,000
346,330,000
62.63
Secondary Education 621,443
97,240,000
156.47
Teachers' Colleges
18,992
12,870,000
677.65
Public Universities
41,062
118,620,000
2888.80
__________________________________________________________________________
Notes: * All data are "provisional," i.e., government estimates (in
recent years, very close to final figures).
** 1 Kenya Pound = 20 Kenya Shillings.
Source: Republic of Kenya. 1993. Economic Survey 1993. Nairobi: Government
Printer.
_____________________________________________________________________
Table 4
Development Status of Countries in East Africa
_____________________________________________________________________
1989 per 1989 Life
1985 Adult
Rate of
Capita Expectancy
Illiteracy
Population
Country/Region Rank
GNP at Birth
Women All
Growth
_____________________________________________________________________
Ethiopia 2 $ 120 48 yrs - 38% 3.4%
Kenya 23 $ 360 59 yrs 51% 41% 3.4%
Somalia 4 $ 170 48 yrs 94% 88% 3.1%
Sudan 40 $ 550 50 yrs - - 2.8%
Tanzania 3 $ 130 49 yrs - - 3.3%
Uganda 14 $ 250 49 yrs 55% 43% 3.5%
Low- and
Middle-Income
SubSaharan Africa
$ 340
51 yrs
65%
52%
3.2%
_____________________________________________________________________
Source: World Bank. 1991. World Development Report 1991. New York:
Oxford University Press.