Along with the use of historical styles, the nineteenth century was
marked by new structural methods. Undisguised by any ornamental
overlay, the new structure appeared in purely utilitarian and
temporary structures. In these, steel framework and often glass walls
replace traditionally masonry designs with framed openings.
Exhibition buildings like the Crystal Palace in London (1851) and the
Eiffel Tower in Paris (1889), and greenhouses, bridges (Brooklyn
Bridge, opened 1883), factories, and railroad stations show a variety
of such applications of the steel framework construction.
In the late nineteenth century there was a reaction against the
artificiality of traditional architecture. In Europe, Art Nouveau was
decorative rather than structural; its sinuous, organic curves
suggested primarily aquatic plant life. In the U.S. the reaction was
led by the Chicago School. These architects rejected the traditional
vocabulary of historical ornament, sometimes inventing new ornamental
forms which expressed new principles of architectural design,
especially in their emphasis on the wall as surface rather than mass.
For the use of structural steel and ferro-concrete eliminates the
load-bearing wall: the wall becomes a surface enclosing spatial
volumes. New building types (especially the skyscraper) and the free
interpenetration of interior spaces are also made possible by the new
construction. Louis Sullivan formulated the principle of "organic"
planning, in which the plan is the direct expression of functional
relations (exemplified by his phrase "Form follows function"). This
principle becomes basic in twentieth century architecture.
Key works:
1. Isambard Kingdom Brunel: Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol,
England, designed 1829, completed 1864 [
309]
2. Eugene-Emanuel Viollet-le-Duc: "Discourses on Architecture," 1858-
72 [
136 illustration of iron-based vaulting]; figs. 769, 770.
3. Gustave Eiffel: Eiffel Tower, Paris, 1889; colorplate 60
4. Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler: Wainwright Building, St. Louis,
1890-91 [
310]; colorplate 62
5. Sullivan: Carson, Pirie, Scott (=Schlesinger and Meyer) Department
Store, Chicago, 1899-1904 [
311 exterior--as modified--today]; figs.
788, 789
Works in context:
Terms: