Public Speaking Home Page

The Basic Course

Undoubtedly the part of speaking that concerns most people is the actual presentation of the speech. For many people, fear of speaking in public outweighs almost any other possible tense social situation. Although we don't necessarily feel that a little anxiety is a bad thing, in some cases, it can help to make a better speech, we don't recommend putting off until the speech that which should be planned for and practiced long before your step up to the podium.

As we have mentioned before, no part of this basic course is of much value all by itself. Everything from choosing a topic to structuring your speech plays a role in how well the speech is presented. Here are two examples. First, if you have chosen a topic in which you have a great deal of interest, or if you have been able to relate the topic at hand to your own interests or experiences, it will be noticed in the presentation of the speech. Your delivery will be marked by greater enthusiasm and you will come across with more confidence. Secondly, if your speech is structured well, it will be far easier for your audience to follow your presentation. You may find, in poorly structured speeches, that a speaker must constantly regress or repeat herself. This is because the speaker had not thought ahead and considered how the ideas and arguments might flow from one to another. In a speech such as this, the presentation is often choppy and unintelligible. What we hope these two examples above show is the following: regardless of how well you might "speak", the path to a well presented speech starts from the very first step of the speech building process.

This page will do it the following. First, we want to introduce and explain the four major methods of speech presentation. Second, we will show how the other channels of communication can (hopefully) enhance the presentation of a speech. Finally, we will give some tips on how to beat the jitters and make the best presentation possible.

The Four Major Methods of Speech Presentation

Speakers usually prepare their presentations in four general ways. They can read from a speech text from a written text or on a TelePrompTer, they can memorize a speech and recite it, they can speak extemporaneously from a prepared outline, or they can speak in an impromptu style. Each method has certain advantages and disadvantages making them more or less useful in different speaking situation. You might also find that you have an aptitude for one over the other. In the following section we will discuss these methods as well as explain in detail what each style entails.

Reading a Speech from a Text-

In very formal situations, this is the preferred method of speech presentation. Reading a speech entails having a full reproduction of the text before you and (for the most part) presenting in large part directly from it. We can't say enough, however, that this method should not be viewed as simply "reading" a speech. Nothing will turn your audience off more than seeing a speaker talking to a stack of papers. A better way looking at reading a speech from a text is to look at it as memorizing a speech and presenting the speech still with the text.

Benefits of this method:

For speakers who have trouble constructing coherent sentences impromptu, this method conceals this weakness.

For official situations in which you must be precise with the words and phrases you use, this method is appropriate. Some times you will be quoting sources and being exact with your references will be of utmost importance

Pitfalls and liabilities:

As we have said in the section on analyzing your audience, a good speaker will adapt to her audience. If your audience seems confused by the complexity of what you are saying or perhaps bored with the simplicity of it, a written text doesn't offer the flexibility of shortening or expanding points. You will have to leave your text to adapt to the audience.

Often, if you have not practiced reading aloud, you might find some sentences difficult to read. Different sentences require different intonations or rhythms for effective expression. Sometimes questions, which require a very different intonation than statements, do not begin with "question" words. You might find yourself reading a particular sentence where upon reaching the end you find it was actually a question. If your intonation did not indicate this from he beginning, your point will be lost and your audience confused.

Tips on how to read from a text:

Remember, just because you a writing speech to be read doesn't mean that it is not an oral presentation. When you are writing this speech, say it out loud! How does it sound? Sometimes a sentence which is grammatically correct and easily read will be awkward to read. If you can not change the sentence, at very least practice it such that you can plan your pauses and intonations.

Change that font! Make it larger! You will need more pages, but that's better than squinting to see what you have written. Also, you will want to look up to the audience often. Having a larger font will allow you to get back to your spot on the page more quickly.

Remember, use a font that is easy to read. Some are very "bunchy". Choose a font that spreads the letters out!

Print on both sides of the page and number them! Since you will hopefully be using a larger font, you will have more pages. Typing on both side of the page will reduce the amount of times you will have to turn the page. When you are finished with page 1, turn it over and place it to the left of the next page (that will be page 3). This way, very much like a book, you will have both page 2 and 3 before you. Remember! Anything that you do might be noticed by the audience. If you're constantly turning pages they might start noticing that and not your speech! (Number your pages!).

{Emphatically} Give yourself dramatic cues! Set them off from the text by making them bold or putting them in brackets you don't otherwise use, hightlight them or print them with different inks. If you came across this sentence above, you wouldn't see the exclamation point (!) until the end of the sentence -- that would be too late!

The Memorized Speech-

This method is basically what it sounds like. From a written speech text you commit the speech to memory and present the speech from memory. In the classical canon of Rhetoric, memorizing speeches (memoria) was as important as any element of public address. Our advantage over Classical Greece is a variety of reproduction devices (like the World Wide Web), but this doesn't negate the usefulness of memorization as a speech delivery method.

Benefits of this method:

-Like the read speech, the memorized speech avoids the problem of creating sentences "on the fly" and ensures you that you will say exactly what was planned before hand.

-The advantage the memorized speech has over the read speech is the "eyes on the podium" problem. You are free to engage the audience with your face and eyes at all times because you don't need to return to a written text.

-The problem of intonation changes in the middle of sentences that we identified in the read speech is avoided for the most part as well.

Pitfalls and liabilities:

-The primary problem with memorization is that you can forget. It's as simple as that. Among other things, forgeting what you have to say could impact your ethos negatively.

-Another problem common to both the read and memorized speech is, once again, the inflexibility of the form to adapt to the audience. In the memorized speech, if you leave the text to clarify a point that seems to have left your audience with confused stares or a gaping mouth, you must then remember where exactly you deviated from the speech and reacquaint your audience with the thread of your presentation that you temporarily left.

Tips on how to:

-The first is to use what will can the "diminishing outline approach" as described in the extemporaneous speech. (outlined below).

-The second method of memorization would be to use pneumonic devices. This is how it works:

Using a very familiar experience that has a very particular sequence to you, create a corresponding group of points and sub-points. For example, if you were to use your nightly trip from work to home as a pneumonic standard, you would attach each of the points of your speech to points alone the way. The first stop, on Craft Avenue would be your introduction. To remember the 5 sub-points of your introduction you might choose 5 stores that are on the block. If you had to expand further on one of the sub-points you might imagine yourself going into one of the stores (maybe a pizza place) and reading the menu. Here's what it would look like. This is a speech on the creation and reform of welfare in the United States.

I.) Craft Ave. - Attention getting material

II.) McKee Pl. - Introduction

II.) Meyran Ave. - Historical Overview

IV.) Oakland Ave. - Present Perspectives

V.) Atwood St. - Your Plan

VI.) Bouquet St. - Conclusion

Each of the items in boldstrike are the points in your speech. The items before them are the very familiar stops on your bus trip from work to home. In point II, we show how we can subdivide a single block into the several stores that are on that block. In point II.E., we subdivide by using three of our favorite items in this store. If we had to, we could make each into a sandwich and then attach a sub-point to each ingredient of the sandwich.

Extemporaneous Speaking-

Extemporaneous Speaking is speaking on a familiar subject and using only an outline (much like the one above that we used to help us memorize a speech).

Benefits of this method: The benefit of this method is that the style is often far less formal. For speakers who are able to speak fluently without a pre-written text it plays to their strong suit. When points seem to bore or confuse an audience, this method allows the speaker to reduce or expand points "on the fly." Some believe this style often requires less preparation.

Pitfalls and liabilities: For speakers who are not very familiar with the topic, this method might cause them to stumble, especially if they reach a point that they can not fully recall. If you consider the outline above as an example, imagine reaching point II.E.3. and not remembering what the relevance of campaign reform was to the Contract with America.

Tips on how to: Just like the memorized speech, your best bet is to figure out what you are going to say and then outline it. Once you have a full outline, you can try to shorten it until you need only one or two words to recall what you were going to say. This is called a keyword outline and is discussed on the outlining page.

Impromptu Speaking-

Instead of being an actually planned method, the impromptu speech is the way we prepare presentations when we have little time and a great exigency.

Benefits of this method: It takes virtually no preparation. It allows you to "seize the moment" in situations.

Pitfalls and liabilities: If you are expected to prepare a speech, this presentation method will not be adequate. You should only do impromptu speeches on topics you are well prepared to talk about. Often, without extensive knowledge of your sources, the audience might question the existence or validity of your evidence or supporting material.

Tips on how to: When the opportunity presents itself, take a few brief moments to jot down what you think is important to say. Quickly estimate the amount of time you have to speak and the length of time each point will take and then eliminate if necessary and expand if possible. Order the points and write down anything about those points that you fear you could forget while under the spotlight. When you go to present the speech, your brief keyword outline will help you preview, review, and do internal reviews.

Non-verbal Communication and the impressions you make.

The use of the eyes to communicate

The use of the face to communicate

The use of distance to communicate

The use of voice to communicate

The use of dress to communicate

The use of gestures to communicate

Communication scholars have identified and isolated several channels of communication. Those that are normally called "non-verbal" are the ones which we will discuss in this section. What is meant by non-verbal communication? Well, imagine you were listening to a speaker who spoke a language you didn't understand. All of the cues that you could identify in her presentation that were not what we might usually call the "text" of the speech are part of non-verbal communication. This section of our presentation discussion starts with the assumption that the text of the speech (that which could be written down) is only p art of what you are communicating when you speak in-person. Our hope is that everything that you communicate non-verbally will compliment and enhance what you are saying verbally and that no non-verbal channel will interfere with or distract from your message. An examination of each of the following non-verbal channels of communication will hopefully provide you with a new approach to the presentation of your speeches.

The use of the eyes to communicate. When you speak and when you listen to speakers you normally engage others with your eyes. As a speaker, it is imperative to know what kind of messages you are sending with your eyes. Here is an inexhaustive list of ways your eyes can communicate.

-If your eyes are steady and they engage the audience, that can supplement and support the ethos or identification that you will hopefully be developing with your audience.

-If you look up to the ceiling while you are making speculatory remarks, your eyes may be supporting the idea that your present comments are only conjecture and not necessarily sustainable conclusions.

-If you are presenting facts and your struggling to recall the specifics, looking up to avoid the gaze of the audience, closing your eyes, or shifting your eyes back forth might interfere with your attempt to convey responsible knowledge.

-If you are trying to persuade the audience that your plan is best for all of them, but only looking at those present who already agree with you, you will not be supporting the point non-verbally.

Obviously the first two cases are ones in which your eyes would be supporting your point, while in the second two your eyes might be perceived as compromising your point. Here are a few tips to consider:

-If the audience is smaller than 20 people, make sure you look each person in the eye as many times as possible.

-If the audience is much larger the 20, you might not be able to meet the gaze of each person, but do look to each part of the audience several times. Don't let the people in the back corner think your are not talking to them. (This will usually be done with hand and facial gestures, but getting the eyes involved is the first part of this process).

-The pace and intensity of your eye contact should compliment the mood and the changes of your speech. (Many of the comments about rhythm and intensity of voice translate directly to eye contact).

The use of the face to communicate. Television broadcasters and speakers often have little more to work with non-verbally beyond that which is above the chest, yet with their facial expressions they are able to greatly enhance their verbal message. If you are in an intimate speaking situation or will be speaking via video, the messages your face conveys must be considered. The section above on the use of eyes to communicate is relevant to this section, but here are a few more tips and examples for the face.

-The eyebrows will usually mirror the message that the eyes make. Consider how you would express anger, surprise and confusion with only your eyebrows.

-How would you express incredulity or disgust with you mouth alone?

The use of distance to communicate. Your proximity to the audience is an important aspect of your non-verbal message.

If you can alter your proximity to your audience during your speech:

You might choose to do so at suitable times. If you can recall the variety of "town hall" style debates in the '92 presidential election cycle, you might remember how effectively Bill Clinton moved to and from the audience. Usually, during the question and answer period, he was able to increase his ethos as a caring and empathetic speaker.

Here are some tips-

Don't amble back and forth simply for the purpose of moving.

Don't hover over people or violate their "personal" space.

Do not move too much, like hand waving or raising your voice, it can quickly lose its ability to punctuate your points and might simply become distracting.

If you cannot alter your proximity, be aware of how your distance might be interpreted. If it is a positive interpretation encourage it. If it is negative overcome it. For example, if you find yourself speaking to an audience from a distant and heightened platform, it might communicate superiority to them. If you are trying to empathize with your audience, this can be a liability. If you are trying to convey your expert or informed information to an audience, it may be an asset.

The use of voice to communicate. Don't be confused by this one, voice is not the same as speech. Just like the foreign speaker example has shown, regardless of what is being said, the voice can convey messages just like the words we use. For another example that we can all relate to, consider sarcasm. The use of intonation (one of the ways we can use voice to communicate that will be discussed below) can make a declarative statement's meaning into the exact opposite.

He really couldn't oppose that secretaries plan. (Sarcastically) He really couldn't oppose that secretaries plan.

Here are the primary ways to use voice to communicate.

1.) Intonation - Using the pitch of your voice to communicate. The most evident example of pitch modulation in speech is in questions. Normally, at the end of a question sentence, the tone will rise. Another way that tone changes the meaning or adds emphasis is by lowering intonation to stress brevity.

Unfortunately, without sound, this page lacks the ability to express all the ways that voice can emphasize, add, or change the meaning of speech. Listening to good speakers, announcers, or even actors use pitch to accomplish these goals is definitely a great way to supplement this page's discussion of voice.

2.) Meter - Although monotone speakers may be thought to those who do not modulate their intonation, they are usually also guilty of not varying their meter. Meter (or rhythm) is the use of voice speed or pauses to emphasize, add, or change the meaning of speech.

-At times, you will want a steady even speed - possibly when you are moving through the nuts and bolts of your speech. Sometimes, you will want to quicken the speed, either to get through a point that might not be of utmost importance or, when coupled with an increase in intensity and volume, when you have reached an important point. Pauses are yet another way meter can enhance a speech, especially if they follow points you want to seriously contemplate. This, as the cliché goes, is called a "dramatic pause."

3.) Volume - How loud your voice is can obviously inflect meaning into a speech. Just like meter, there are times, especially during the impassioned parts of a speech to raise your voice, while during the somber parts it may help to lower and soften your voice. The most important volume consideration for beginning speakers, however, is enough volume. In situations in which you do not have electronic enhancement available, it is important to fill the room with your voice. In most cases, beginning speakers are not loud enough. Begin by speaking too loud. If you have a friend in the audience, ask her to sit in the back and signal for volume. Remember, you must not only be loud enough to be heard, but also to command the attention of your audience.

4.) Inflection - Once again it is hard to give good explanations without sound, but this is basically volume, meter, and tone hitting on a single word or phase to give, change, or add meaning to your speech. Consider the following phrases and inflect (emphasize) different words to change the meaning of the sentence. (Say it out loud).

He didn't give me the money. (Implying he gave to someone else?)

He didn't give me the money. (Implying you got it in another way?)

He didn't give me the money. (Implying he gave you something else).

He didn't give me the money. (Implying someone else did?)

The use of dress to communicate. Just like in any face-to-face situation, your dress is interpreted positively or negatively. I won't go into details about the proper clothes for the proper venue, but I will offer a few tips.

-Don't wear loud shoes. Every step you take could distract your audience.

-Don't wear clothes that are too hot for you. Remember, as soon as you get up there you may get nervous and even warmer.

-If you tend to figit with things that may dangle from your head or body (your hair, earrings, hats or other clothes) don't wear them. You could end up mesmerizing your audience with the little curly cues you make with your hair instead of your speech.

The use of gestures to communicate. New speakers often never consider what to do with their hands during a speech until it is actually happening. Like so many things in non-verbal communication, if we don't think about them before hand, they could become a problem during the speech. Often, when we are nervous, we will try to find an outlet to sublimate the jitters. We might tap our feet, twist our hair, pace back and forth, or maybe twiddle or tap our hands. This is not only potentially annoying and distracting, but causes us to forfeit an entire channel of communication that could enhance or alter the meaning of our words.

By pointing, waving, making fists, or any other variety of hand gestures we can add to our message. Here are a few examples, but as usual observe others to figure out how you might best use your hand to communicate.

-A speaker points to an administration building that personifies the antagonist in his speech. This gives a material referent to the speakers otherwise faceless nemesis.

-A speaker raises her arms with her palms open, emphasizing the message that she hopes for positive identification with and among the audience.

-A speaker holds up his open palm and lets it face the audience. At the same time he offers arguments that he hopes will preempt some expected rebuttal. "Now I'm not saying that all violent criminals will repeat their crime."

Here are some tips on hand gestures.

-Only use gestures you feel comfortable with.

-Don't over use any single gesture.

-Plan on where your hands are going to be during the speech when they are not gesturing. If you don't have a podium, this will be particularly important. Resting your hands at your sides for the entire speech could be conspicuous as well as difficult.

-Don't put your hands in your pockets unless you are trying to express a casual feeling to the audience.

Beat the Jitters

Be prepared! Practice! If you are ready to give the speech you will eliminate at least one of the possible things you could be nervous about.

Practice the speech in front of the mirror ALOUD. Take a look at how you appear. Maybe you will catch yourself doing things you didn't realize you were doing.

Practice in front of others, get opinions. Even if the person could not be part of your target audience (the person is either already convinced or your arguments or knows too much or too little to comment on the message of your speech), she can still observe the quality of the presentation.

When you practice, do it with exuberance and do everything hyperbolically. Speak a little louder, gesture a little more, overuse those nonverbal cues, and be a little more emotional (if it is a serious speech be more serious, if it is an angry speech, be angry!) Once you have practiced in this manner, present it to a friend or test audience. You might be surprised, they might not ask you to tone everything down. Often good public speech presentation takes more energy than most people realize!

If you donÕt think you can be an expressive speaker, practice pretending to be one --visualize! Before long you might be able to incorporate this persona into your presentations. The problem for most people is that they have a hard time imagining themselves as a speaker, so a "pretend" persona might be just the trick for you to develop a presentation personality!

Remember, you're never appear as nervous as you are. Don't assume the audience sees your terror and don't apologize for it.

Public Speaking Home Page

The Basic Course