1.    Define and Identify the Problem
2.    Analyze the Problem
3.    Identifying Possible Solutions
4.    Selecting the Best Solutions
5.    Evaluating Solutions
6.    Develop an Action Plan
7.    Implement the Solution

This first step is critical.  It is essential for each group member to clearly understand the problem so that all energy will be focused in the same direction.  A good way to define the problem is to write down a concise statement which summarizes the problem, and then write down where you want to be after the problem has been resolved.  The objective is to get as much information about the problem as possible.  It may be helpful to divide the symptoms of the problem into  hard  and soft  data.
 
Hard Data Includes:  Facts, statistics, goals, time factors, history

Soft Data Includes:  Feelings, opinions, human factors, attitudes, frustrations, personality conflicts, behaviors, hearsay, intuition

These steps may not always be pleasant, but after "venting" group participants may feel that the air has finally cleared and members can be more rational and cooperative.

Sometimes information needs to be gathered via various devices to define the problem.  These devices may  include:  Interviews, statistics, questionnaires, technical experiments, check sheets, brainstorming and focus groups.

Develop a Problem Statement
 
It is essential to develop an objective statement which clearly describes the current condition your group wishes to change.  Make sure the problem is limited in scope so that it is small enough to realistically tackle and solve.  Writing the statement will ensure that everyone can understand exactly what the problem is.  It is important to avoid including any "implied cause" or "implied solution" in the problem statement.   Remember, a problem well stated is a problem half solved.
 
State the Goal
 
Once the problem is defined, it is relatively easy to decide what the goal will be.  Stating the goal provides a focus and direction for the group.  A measurable goal will allow the tracking of progress as the problem is solved.
 
Considerations
 
When defining the problem, ask the following:
• Is the problem stated objectively using only the facts?
• Is the scope of the problem limited enough for the group to handle?
• Will all who read it understand the same meaning of the problem?
• Does the statement include "implied causes" or "implied solutions?"
• Has the "desired state" been described in measurable terms?
• Do you have a target date identified?
 
 

 
• What is the history of the problem?  How long has it existed?
• How serious is the problem?
• What are the causes of the problem?
• What are the effects of the problem?
• What are the symptoms of the problem?
• What methods does the group already have for dealing with the problem?
• What are the limitations of those methods?
• How much freedom does the group have in gathering information and attempting to solve the problem?
• What obstacles keep the group from achieving the goal?
• Can the problem be divided into sub problems for definition and analysis?

Brainstorming
 
Brainstorming is a problem solving approach designed to help a group generate several creative solutions to a problem.  It was first developed by Alex Osborn, an advertising executive who felt the need for a problem solving technique that, instead of evaluating and criticizing ideas, would focus on developing imaginative and innovative solutions.
 
Steps
• A group's members are presented with a problem and all its details.
• Members are encouraged to come up with as many solutions as possible, putting aside all personal judgments and evaluations.  "Piggy-backing" off another person's idea is useful.
• All ideas are recorded so the whole group can see them.
• Ideas are evaluated at another session.
 
Characteristics
 
• Procedure designed to release a group's creativity in order to generate multiple imaginative solutions to a problem.
• Separates the idea-creation from the idea-evaluation process by not allowing any criticism to take place while the group is generating ideas.
• May be more productive for each member to brainstorm quietly and then share ideas with the group (brainwriting).
• Electronic brainstorming puts each member at a computer terminal and their ideas are projected to a screen so no one knows from whom an idea came.
• Used by businesses and government to improve the quality of decision making.
 
Brainstorming for Teachers
Brainstorming - Effectiveness in a Product Design Firm
 
 
Buzz Groups
 
Steps
• The facilitator presents a target question to the group.
• If the group is large, divide into smaller groups (approx. six people).
• Each group is given a copy of the target questions on an index card and a recorder/spokesperson is selected by seating.  The individual then writes all ideas on index cards.
• The group spends a few minutes thinking of and evaluating ideas.
• The group reports its list to the entire assembly.
 
Characteristics
 
• A large group is subdivided into smaller groups which discuss an assigned target question, then report their questions back to the main group.
• Encourages participation and involvement that is not feasible in large groups.
• Technique can be used to identify problems or issues, generate questions to study, compile a list of ideas or solutions, or stimulate personal involvement.
• Used by churches, schools, and company department heads to foster involvement in a large group assembly.
 
 Suggestions for Team Buzz Sessions
 

Nominal Groups
 

Steps
• The problem, situation, or question is stated clearly and concisely.
• The coordinator asks participants to generate a list of the features or characteristics of the problem or question.
• The coordinator gives the group five to fifteen minutes to work silently.
• Each suggestion is recorded on a chart visible to all members.
• Members clarify the items, but do not yet evaluate them.
• Each person chooses his or her top ranked items.
• The group engages in full discussion about the top rated items.
• A decision is reached.
 
Characteristics
 
• Capitalizes on the finding that people working individually while in the presence of others sometimes generate more ideas than while interacting as a group.
• Can enable members to reach a decision on a controversial issue without leaving a residue of bitterness from a win-lose conflict.
• Members work individually in each other's presence by writing their ideas.  They record these ideas on a chart, discuss them as a group, and finally evaluate them by a ranking procedure until members reach a decision.
• Stifles effect of dominating members of the group.
• Tendency for lazy members to let others carry the ball is minimized.
• Adds structure to the brainstorming process.
 
 
Delphi Methods
 
Steps
• A Delphi Panel is selected by the facilitator.
• The problem or issue is stated concisely in writing and sent to each of the Delphi panel for individual work.
• The facilitator compiles another document that details all the individual positions taken by the panel and distributes a copy to each member
• This procedure, with a facilitator compiling the individual comments into a single document and distributing it to the group, continues until a consensus is reached.
 
Characteristics
 
• Not a group decision technique.
• Involves presenting a problem or an issue to the appropriate individuals, asking them to list their solutions, compiling a master list, circulating this master list to all participants, and asks them to comment in writing on each item on the list.  The list with comments is then circulate to the participants.  The procedure is continued until a decision is reached.
• Good for when time and distance constraints make it difficult for group members to meet.
 
 
 
Fantasy Chaining
 
Steps
• Whenever the group is not talking about the here-and-now of the problem, it is engaged in fantasy.
• Fantasy chaining is a group story-telling method wherein everyone in the group adds something to the topic at hand, which may not necessarily be the primary focus.
 
Characteristics
 
• Manifest theme is what the fantasy chain is about at the surface level.
• Latent theme is the underlying theme (what the group members are really thinking about).
• Helps the group define itself by creating symbols that are meaningful and that help determine its values.
• Enables a group to discuss indirectly matters that might be too painful or difficult to bring out into the open.
• Helps a group deal with emotionally "heavy" information.
• Effective way in which groups create their shared images of the world, each other, and what they are about as a group.
• A group's identity converges through these shared fantasies.
 
 
Focus Groups
 
Steps
• Instructor introduces a topic that is to be discussed by the group in any way they choose.
 
Characteristics
 
• Encourages unstructured thoughts about a given topic.
• Often used to analyze people's interests and values.
• Universities, large corporations, and political candidates use focus groups to understand how others perceive their strengths and weaknesses.
 
 Focus Groups - Making it Work for You Behind a One-Way Mirror
 
 
Metaphorical Thinking
 
A metaphor is a thinking technique connecting two different universes of meaning.  The key to metaphorical thinking is  similarity.

Excessive logical thinking can stifle the creative process, so use metaphors as a way of thinking differently about something.  Make and look at metaphors in your thinking, and be aware of the metaphors you use.  Metaphors are wonderful, so long as we remember that they don't constitute a means of proof.  As by definition, a metaphor must break down at some point.
 

Steps
 
•  State the objectives of thinking in metaphors:  to see comparisons between two ideas, and to gain new insights from comparisons
• Brainstorm possible metaphors for some aspects of the problem
• "Piggyback" on metaphors; build on them
• Choose the best metaphors to carry further
• Examine all imaginable areas of comparison in the metaphor
• Ask questions the metaphor might answer
• Look for insights into causes, effects, and solutions for your problem
 
 
Considerations
 
When identifying possible solutions, it is essential to remember to:
• Hold back from evaluating proposed solutions.
• Make a point of "thinking outside" of your own experience and expertise.
• Involve everyone in the process.
• Go for quantity - at least 20 or so possible solutions before narrowing the list to between four and six of the best suggestions.
 
 

 
 
 
 Decision Making Techniques
 Teamwork - Decision Making
 Eight Steps to Decision Making 
 
 

The starting point in any conscious attempt at rational decision making must be the recognition that a problem exists.  While effective meetings are essential to getting work done, most meetings leave us still looking for a decision.  A good group meeting should bring the group members together.  It should facilitate decision making, assist others in taking responsibility, and contribute to building team effort within the group.

The group begins with defining the problem.  The group members only discuss the definition of terms and how the problem relates to other issues.  Identifying the problem is very crucial.  It is important to not define a problem so broadly that it generates never-ending questions.
 

Be Alert
 

Being alert at all times can help you work towards finding a solution in a logical manner.  It is essential to be sensitive to morally charged situations.  Everyone in the group must be alert and ready to make concise decisions if a problem were to arise.  Group members should work through a series of steps designed to force them to reflect on certain aspects of a problem in a rational manner.  Being alert is simply stating the obvious and immediate.  For example, an auto accident, burnt out motor, and an overdrawn account.

Gather Information and Do Not Jump to Conclusions
 
This is the essence of the decision making process.  It is very important to spend time on this step before suggesting solutions.  It is said that successful groups do not jump to the solution stage quickly.  They spend ample amount of time gathering information and analyzing the problem.  The main purpose of this step is to gather as much information on a topic as possible.  The group needs to think about their audience.  They need to think about who will be reading it and when.  While accuracy is important, there can be a trade-off between gathering information and letting morally significant options and information disappear.

State The Case Briefly
 

In this step, the group needs to come up with relevant facts and circumstances.  They need to gather this information within the decision time available.  It does not have to be a lot of information, but all of the important information needs to be stated in brief context.

What Decisions Have to Be Made?
 

Life is full of choices and decisions.  Even deciding not to decide is, of course, a decision.  This stage is very crucial to overcoming a problem, and, of course, making a group decision.  The members of the group need to put thoughts and ideas into play in order to make good decisions.  The group needs to brainstorm and gather lots of options to come to one final decision.

By Whom?
 
Remember that there may be more than one decision maker.  Their interactions can be very important and influential in a group decision.

In this step the group needs to begin defining the problem.  The group members need to define the problem and come up with other ideas so they are not limited to just one final decision.  If their first alternative does not work out, they can make another decision and choose other alternatives.  The following are some steps to follow while finding feasible alternatives:

• Define the problem. Try to phrase it as a question.
• Discuss group goals and options.
• Identify all options available at that time.
• Determine the importance of the problem.
• Make clear all meeting times and places.

State Live Options at Each Stage
 
In this step you should be sure to ask many questions.  Each decision maker needs to take into account good or bad consequences.  Here, you should ask what the likely consequences are of various decisions.

In this step you need to use your ethical resources to determine what the decision will be.  The following are the most significant factors you should use as a guideline when determining your decision.
 
 

Principles
 
These are principals that are widely accepted throughout a group or organization.
 
Respect Autonomy
 
Members of the group need to ask themselves questions such as, Would I be exploiting others?  Have promises been made?
 
Don't Harm
 
After making the decision, think to yourself whether or not your decision will hurt anyone.
 
Be Fair
 
Be fair and work willingly with the members of your group.

Use Good Context

A decision must be made, but which solution should your group choose?  In identifying the best solution or solutions to the problem, the group should consider from among the four to six suggestions that were decided upon from the ideas which they had gathered.   The different factors, or criteria, that people use to make their decisions are often unclear or never voiced.  This can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations of other people's motives.
 
 

Gathering Ideas and Information on the Actual Problem
 
• Determine who exactly is your audience.  This allows you to specify a solution that best addresses a specific audience.
• Research and establish the history of the problem to be solved, as well as what caused the problem to occur.  This allows for accuracy within your solution.
• Discuss how the problem to be solved relates to other issues.  However, be careful not to bring forth any other problems while solving the initial problem.
• Analyze and examine the facts and all of the gathered information.  This allows the group to challenge facts and assumptions, making sure they can withstand any type of scrutiny or disagreement.
• Make sure that you have gathered enough information on the problem.
 
Establish Some Type of Decision Criteria
 
The discussion of the group should focus on what makes an acceptable decision.
 
• Examine what an ideal decision consists of and what should be included and excluded out of that decision.
• Discuss what a reasonable or fairly good solution would be.  This becomes important when the ideal solution can not be reached.
• Decide what standards the group should utilize to judge a decision.
• Consider what is valid and feasible about the decision made.
 
Discuss Possible Solutions
 
Address such questions as:
• Have all solutions been accounted for?
• What, if any, is the evidence to support each of the chosen decisions?
• Did the group use brainstorming techniques to produce ideas?

Selecting or Determining the Best Solution
 

At this stage in the process the group is working towards an agreement on the final solution.  This is done by testing all previously made solutions using the decision making criteria set forth by the group.  The group goal in this step is to make sure they have found the solution that will best solve the problem and address any other issues that may have been a consequence of that problem.

During this phase, the group should eliminate any solution that does not meet the requirements and focus on those that could ultimately be utilized.  The group should be concerned with whether or not the solution chosen solves the problem or just minimizes it.

• Is the solution workable in relation to the problem?
• Are there any limits that the solution presents?
• When looking at the advantages and disadvantages, which are there more of?
• Does the chosen idea live up to the standards of the decision criteria?
• Are the facts and information gathered consistent with the proposed solution?
 
 

In this phase the group should be focusing on two main goals.
 
• The best way to make the solution apply and function when applied to the problem.
 
• What resources are needed for the solution to work?
 
For this to work, complete dedication on the part of all group members is needed.  Everyone in the group has to be willing to work with one another while offering their unique skills and talents.  Group members also have to be willing to take full responsibility for the solution they choose.

Accountability within the group plays a very important part in the decision implementation process.  While in this phase, the group should ask such questions as (Schein, 1969):

• What do we have to do to accomplish our proposed course of action?
• Who will be responsible for implementing the proposed plan?
• When can our group reasonably expect results?
• What unplanned events or accidents are likely to jeopardize our actions?
• What people should we consult who can help us with our proposal?
• What people should we consult who could threaten our proposal?
 
Once this is done, the group can implement the solution.

During this final step, it is important to have the support of the entire group.  Keep in mind that in case this primary solution does not work as planned, the group will have to look for alternative solutions.  Tracking the effect of the solution in the long run also serves to be a helpful future model and determines what is and what is not needed in a solution.
 

 

Making a T-Chart to Weigh the Pros and Cons of Each Idea
 

It is often helpful to make a T-chart and ask members of the group to name the pros and cons of each solution.  This method will visually illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of each solution.

Develop and Assign Weights to Criteria
 
The key to avoiding possible deadlock in the decision making process is to put all criteria people are thinking about on the table.  This way, all group members are clear as to what criteria others are using.
 

Prioritize the Criteria
 

The next step is for the group to agree on how important these criteria are in relation to each other.  For example, is cost the most important criterion, or low resistance by others, etc.  The criteria should then be rated in terms of importance.  Assign a number to each criterion so that all criteria together total 100.
 
 
Rate Proposed Solutions Using Criteria
 
Using the four to six possible solutions, score (on a scale of 1 to 10) each solution against each criteria.  Repeat this for each criterion.  Multiply this score to the weighting, then add the weighted scores for each solution.  This exercise will help you to compare alternatives objectively.
 
 
Considerations
 
• What are the advantages of each solution?
• Are there any disadvantages to the solution?
• Do disadvantages outweigh advantages?
• What are the long and short-term effects of this solution if adopted?
• Would the solution really solve the problem?
• Does the solution conform to the criteria formulated by the group?
• Should the group modify the criteria?
 
 

Divide the Solution Into Sequential Tasks
 
Looking at your solution as one task may seem too great an undertaking.  It is much more productive to divide it into sequential tasks which act as measurable steps toward the solution.  When dividing the solution into tasks, be sure to include a timeline, what is to be done, and who will do it.
 

Develop Contingency Plans
 

The best laid plans of mice and men...
Even the best of plans get stalled, sidetracked, or must be changed midstream because of something unforeseen.  Most times these circumstances cannot be prevented, but you can and should prepare for potential kinks by having a contingency plan.  Having such a plan will keep the momentum going instead of having to stop and figure out what to do when an unplanned event occurs.
 
 
Action Planning Question Checklist
 
The following checklist will be helpful to ensure that all bases are covered in your plan of action:
• What is the overall objective and ideal situation?
• What is needed in order to get there from here?
• What actions need to be done?
• Who will be responsible for each action?
• How long will each step take and when should it be done?
• What is the best sequence of actions?
• How can we be sure that earlier steps will be done in time for later steps which depend on them?
• What training is required to ensure that each person knows how to execute each step in the plan?
• What standards do we want to set?
• What resources are needed and how will we get them?
• How will we measure results?
• How will we follow up each step and who will do it?
• What checkpoints and milestones should be established?
• What are the make/break vital steps and how can we ensure they succeed?
• What could go wrong and how will we get around it?
• Who will this plan affect and how will it affect them?
• How can the plan be adjusted without jeopardizing its results to ensure the best response and impact?
• How will we communicate the plan to ensure support?
• What responses to change and other human factors are anticipated and how will they be overcome?
 
 
Considerations
 
• Have you considered what resources will be needed?
• Have you developed contingency plans for the most critical action steps?
• Are the necessary people aware of the contingency plan?
 
 

Monitoring
 
A designated member of the group should monitor whether or not specific tasks are being performed or short-term targets are being achieved as planned.  This monitoring should take place regularly until all tasks are completed.  Some suggested monitoring techniques are:
• Tickler file
• Compliance reports
• Group meetings
• Individual meetings
• Customer/user interviews
• Surveys and written questionnaires
• Quality control spot checks
• Audit
• Walk through or role play
• Trend graph
• Checkpoints on action plan
• Personal inspection of all work
• Budget controls
• Grapevine
 
 
Implement Contingency Plan if Necessary
 
As conditions change during monitoring and evaluation of the Action Plan, it may become necessary to implement the contingency plans to continue moving toward the goal.

Try making a three-column chart for your contingency plan listing:

• What could go wrong?
• How can you prevent this from happening?
• How will we fix it if it does happen?
 

Evaluate Results
 

This step may involve repeating the initial seven-step problem solving process to address additional problems as needed.  Make certain that the goal has been reached and that a plan is in place to ensure that the problem will not recur.
 
 Group Problem Solving

Ask the following questions and score each answer on a scale of 1 (no participation at all) to 5 (participated very well) to ascertain how well your group solved the problem:

• How well did the group assess the problem or decision?
• How well did the group identify its goal?
• How well did the group identify the positive consequences of the solutions under consideration?
• How well did the group identify the negative consequences of the solutions under consideration?
• Did the group draw reasonable conclusions from available information?
 

Considerations
 

• What role will others play in evaluating progress during implementation?
• How will you know if the implementation is on track?
• How will you know when to implement the contingency plan?
• Who makes the decision?
• Has the goal been reached?
• Are plans in place to ensure the problem does not recur?
 

 A Recipe for Problem Solving