HIGHER EDUCATION IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA REPORT PREPARED BY: Prof. Dr. Srebren Dizdar, President National Commission of Bosnia and Herzegovina for UNESCO Prof. Dr. Bakari Kemal Assistant Minister for Science Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sports Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina March, 1996 HIGHER EDUCATION IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE Bosnia and Herzegovina is an independent country whose state system is based on the principles of modern parliamentary democracy and free market economy. Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was admitted into the Organization of United Nations as a full member on May 22, 1992. Bosnia and Herzegovina covers 51,197 square kilometers in the northwestern part of the Balkans Peninsula in southern Europe, Its position is of utmost importance because it makes the country as a unique bridge between the central parts of inland Europe and the Mediterranean, and particularly the Middle East. The country of a diverse geographical features had, within its 1,537 kilometers long internationally recognized borders, 4,377,033 inhabitants, according to the 1991. census. High mountains are intertwined with the rivers running through picturesque valleys where a fertile and arable land (2,531,000 hectares or 49,5% of the overall territory) offers various possibilities for agriculture and food production under a complex and diversified climate conditions (from a harsh continental to a mild Mediterranean). The country is fairly rich in relevant mineral ores, such as coal, iron ores, lead, zinc, bauxite, manganese, salt, mineral and thermal waters, asbestos and other non-ferrous ores and minerals. About 46% of the territory is covered with different types of woods which host a rich animal kingdom and many plants and flowers. Bosnia and Herzegovina reached an adequate level of development in 1991. 1.7 million of its inhabitants (39% of the overall number of its people) lived in urban surroundings, its 977,000 strong labor force worked in 32,069 private and state controlled industries, other types of companies, public services and administration, or as small business of assorted trades. The country was famous for its hydro and thermo electric power facilities based on its water and coal potentials; it had a whole network of roads and railway lines connecting it via the neighbouring countries of Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro to the East and West, North and South. In 1991, Bosnia and Herzegovina attained a favourable situation in regard to the number of households and the number of housing units. Its 1,207,693 households could dispose of 1,315,756 housing units in 6,823 settlements, but the majority of its people concentrated in 37 towns over ten thousand inhabitants. The average housing unit was 60.45 m2 per household, or 16.68 m2 per inhabitant. The dominant age group between 15 to 64 years of age made up 68% of the total number of its citizens. The fertility rate was 52.0%, and the mortality rate was 7.4 for men and 6.5 for women in 1990. Bosnia and Herzegovina was also known for the diversity of its nations. According to the 1991 Polls, the most numerous among its nations were Bosniaks-Moslems (43.4%), followed by Serbs (31.2%), and Croats (17.3%), whereas the rest was split among the people who thought of themselves as Yugoslavs (5.5%) and twenty or so other peoples and minorities which lived mixed next to each other in it for centuries. CULTURAL AND OTHER SPECIFIC TRAITS Because of its complex multinational, multireligious and multicultural texture, Bosnia and Herzegovina appeared to the outsiders as a somewhat mystical country with its natural beauties and fine architecture; its distant villages and bursting towns; its ability to retain the old traditions and willingness to absorb the new incoming people and their customs and culture; to be tolerant to its cathedrals and sinagogues, its mosques and its churches; to keep what has always been its own and to respect what the others have brought into it. It was the country of delicate balance. Nevertheless, its people expressed a strong commitment for living and working peacefully, having esteem for their neighbours and fellow countrymen regardless of their social rank, religious affiliation or professional status, but guarded their honor, good hearted mind and privacy even to the highly tolerant level of self denial. SOME HISTORICAL FACTS ABOUT BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Bosnia and Herzegovina is an old country. Its roots go back to the prehistoric times. In its thousands years long history the country saw ancient Greeks and Romans, an incessant influx of distinct (and particularly the South Slavic) tribes and nations at the turn from the Old into the Middle Ages, aspiring neighbours and mighty Christian Empires and its own struggle to become a strong country under the King Tvrtko I around the mid 14th century, only to become the part of the Ottoman Turks' Empire in 1463, when its present borders became more or less permanent, and when Islam added its remarkable religious, philosophical, architectural and overall cultural impact to its exquisite heritage which encompassed Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, but also the heretic form of the particular Bosnian Christian Manichaeism (Bogumils), and even a small Jewish community, after having been expelled from Spain, was welcomed here. In the late 19th century, the country rather briefly became a province of Austro-Hungarian Empire, and in the period between 1918-1991 it was the central region of the country known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. During World War II, the country was occupied and split by the Nazi German and Fascist Italian forces and supported by their local Quisling allies. Nevertheless, the Resistance movement led by the Communist dominated Partisans units managed to re-establish the unity of the country, now as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina became one of its six constituent federal entities labelled as "socialist republics". Yugoslavia was neither a part of the Soviet block after its breakup with Stalin in 1948, nor the Western style democracies. It retained its in- between position in the period of "Cold War" and even initiated the "Non- Aligned Movement" among the newly liberated nations of the Third World. The country became known for its stability, a relative economic development and growth, and somewhat liberal approach to its understanding of one party democracy known as "self-government". After the long period of Marshall Tito's rule (1945-1980), Yugoslavia entered into the period of political and economic troubles in the Eighties. The crisis became evident with the unrest in the province of Kosovo in 1981. Since it could not have been solved within the existing variety of political system, differences between the leadership of the six republics and two autonomous provinces within the Republic of Serbia became more and more obvious. The first multiparty elections called in 1990 emphasized these difference more than ever. The international community mediation proved not to be successful. After the regular Yugoslav Army units (JNA) conducted a brief war campaign against Slovenia in summer 1991, there was an armed rebellion of the Serb population in Croatia in the summer and autumn of 1991. The leadership of Serbia used the JNA to support the rebel Serbs against the Croatia. They took control over 30% of the country and claimed it as an "independent Republic of Srpska Krajina" (the Serb Borderland). Although the fighting stopped after the cease-fire was signed in Sarajevo on January 6, 1992 (Cyrus Vance Plan), Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was no longer a single country. It dissolved into several separate countries - Republic of Slovenia, Republic of Croatia, Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republic of Macedonia, whereas Republic of Serbia (which already denied the autonomy to its former provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina and exercised its full control over them) and Republic of Montenegro claimed to be the sole successor to the former Yugoslavia and formed a federation under the name of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. AGGRESSION AGAINST BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA When the majority of its population (67%) voted on a referendum for the independence and a democratic country in February 1992, they could not even conceive in their minds the size of suffering they would be exposed to from April 5, 1992 onwards. It was then when the most brutal armed aggression by Serbia and Montenegro began, together with the former Yugoslav Army and the extremist paramilitary Bosnian Serbs units, inspired by their bloodthirsty leaders of a still unknown mutant form of Fascism, Stalinism, Barbarism and Destructive Desire. They all declared to exterminate everything Bosnia meant for centuries. Villages and towns all across the country were savagely attacked, its defenseless and poorly armed and surprised people tortured, butchered, killed, expelled from their homes, men detained for no reason in concentration camps, women, and even small girls raped, the whole families exterminated, and their possessions robbed and looted. It is estimated that more than 350,000 people were killed, among them 16,693 children; more than 240,000 people were wounded, out of which 52,719 children; nothing is known for 24,000 who simply "vanished"; there are more than 12,000 registered invalid persons, and among them 1,821 children... One of the basic features of this war against civilization and against civilians is an enormous devastation of human settlements and infrastructure. 475 villages were razed to the ground, and 57 towns were either occupied or under the worst kind of merciless siege for months and years. It seems that the primary purpose of aggressors was to destroy the human substance - the people and their places of living, all the documents and testimonies of their existence. The aim was to completely obliterate any remnant of multiethnic, multireligious and multicultural and historical identity. The highly esteemed cultural monuments of the Zero (10) and the I. category (49) respectively were deliberately destroyed - among them two historic urban ensembles of the Zero category, three I. category, and five of II. category; 12 medieval towns, 20 oldest and most beautiful mosques, clock towers, bridges, public utilities, housing and business premises and facilities, but the worst destiny befell on the sacral monuments. According to the available data, which is far from being exhaustive and complete, the three Jewish sacral monuments were destroyed, about 20 Eastern Orthodox, and 214 Roman Catholic ones. Nevertheless, this number seems almost nothing when compared to the monuments of Islamic culture. The attackers were led by a primitive hatred to eradicate anything which was considered to be Bosniak and Moslem, or might appear to belong to the Islamic tradition in Bosnia. All the valuable traces of Bosniak-Moslem culture and history were exposed to fierce attacks and devastations. More than 1,124 mosques, masjids, mektebs (primary religious schools) and madrasahs (secondary religious schools) were shelled, fired at or the explosive devices were deliberately set under them. Many graveyards (mezaristans) and tombs were damaged, or razed to the ground and bulldozed away, so that not a single trace could remain to speak about their centuries long presence on this soil. Ethnic purges of enormous proportions became standard procedures. More than 1,250,000 people were forced to flee from their homes and seek refuge in more than one hundred countries all over the world. Another 850,000 became displaced persons, and were dispersed on the free territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina, away from their homesteads. The largest majority of them were the Bosniak-Moslems, then the Croats, and even the Serbs and all the others who did not want to join the evil forces of destruction, pain and death. Bosnian Serb forces soon gained a control over 70% territory of the country and proclaimed their sovereignty over it as an "independent Serbian Republic". The war activities raged in the period between the spring of 1992 - autumn 1995. In 1993, the conflict became even more complicated when fighting between the Bosniak and Croat allies broke off. After the mediation of USA and European Union, the confrontation was halted. The territories under the control of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Croatian Defence Council formed a specific form of internal administration known as the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Nevertheless, the fighting between the Bosniak and Croat allies and the Bosnian Serb Forces continued. There were numerous attempts by the United Nations and its UNPROFOR military units, as well as the European Union and its monitors, to stop hostilities and to secure at least a cease-fire as a basis for negotiations. Several peace plans failed (Vance-Owen Plan, Owen-Stoltenberg Plan, the Contact Group Plan) mostly because the Bosnian Serbs' leadership based at Pale near Sarajevo rejected their propositions. In autumn 1995, after the NATO air strikes against the Bosnian Serb military installations and the joint offensive by the Bosnian Army and the Croat forces, new negotiations were held in November 1995 at Dayton, Ohio (USA) under the decisive influence of United States. The Dayton Accords were confirmed with the Paris signature on December 14, 1995. These Accords recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina as an independent country within its internationally recognized borders, but comprised of the two entities. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was alloted 51% of the country's territory, whereas the Serb entity ("Republika Srpska") retained the other 49%. The inner boundaries between the entities agreed upon at Dayton did not take into account relevant geographical, historical, political, regional, economic, transportation and other features, or the ethnic composition of the population which lived in these parts before the war. They were seen as one among many painful compromises Bosnia and Herzegovina had to endure in order to enter yet again into the new period of its history when a reconstruction and rehabilitation were needed the most. In the course of 1996, an interim central government will retain the international aspects of the country's sovereignty and organize the elections. The central government will be in charge of foreign policy, central finances (which includes the single currency and the Central Bank), international trade and telecommunications, refugees and expatriate citizens and legal issues concerned with the relations between the entities and the crimes against the humanity. In order to return to future again, Bosnia and Herzegovina needs a tangible assistance to ensure the return of refugees to their homesteads, the reconstruction of houses and apartments, roads, railway tracks, bridges, electricity, gas, heating, water supply and sewage systems, and many other elements of infrastructure. It is a task of gigantic proportions which needs, according to the first estimates by the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and other institutions, the initial 5.1 billion US $ in the next three years. At least three hundred million US $ is seen as the urgent emergency programme for the reconstruction of education which suffered immensely in terms of destruction of buildings and other school premises, as well as in qualified personnel, school equipment and other material, laboratories, textbooks and other academic properties which constitute a normal education system in any country. The international community is primarily interested in providing the funds and expertise for basic education, than for secondary and pre- school education, whereas the higher education comes last although its needs are as urgent as the other segments of education. It is the purpose of this paper to present the situation in the higher education of Bosnia and Herzegovina and to elaborate the needs for its reconstruction and possible future development. INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION HISTORICAL OVERVIEW Medieval Period Although situated in the middle of the Balkans Peninsula, and located near the Mediterranean civilisation and cultural sphere from the times of both Greek and Roman influences, Bosnia and Herzegovina did not develop institutions of higher education in the Middle Ages that could be compared to the similar ones in other parts of Europe - from Padua to Prague, from Sorbonne to Heidelberg, or Salamanca to Oxford. The medieval Bosnian Kingdom produced, in certain periods of its troubled history, various written documents that testified about its rich and diverse cultural heritage. Among them, one could mention the Tablet from Humac (11th century), the Charter of Kulin Ban (from 1189, the first document of the kind), real masterpieces of religious (Christian church) codexes, but these examples of a continuity of written tradition were not a reflection of organised education in schools, let alone universities, although there are some modern historians who claim otherwise. Ottoman Period After the Ottoman Turks conquered Bosnian Kingdom in 1463, there was a faster development of urban centres as well as system of education throughout the country based on the teachings of Islam. In 1531, the Bosnian Governor Gazi Husrev-Bey founded in Sarajevo a higher education establishment for the Sufi philosophy (hanikah). Six years later, in 1537, he provided funds for his madrasah, a school where the Islamic studies were taught, and the famous library, which still exists with a number of rare books, manuscripts and other written material. In the document (vakufnama) which defined the purpose of the madrasah, the legator specifically said that, next to the valuable books which had to be purchased for the school, this institution should provide a study of interpretation of Qur'an and tradition , i.e. Islamic theology; Sharia Law and its disciplines - legal studies, and poetics and rhetorics as eminently philosophical disciplines. In the next 350 years, Gazi Husrev-Bey's madrasah was the institution of the highest rank in Bosnia and Herzegovina. From the beginning of its activities, it had the same status as the Sultan Bayazet's mosque in Istanbul, which was the school from which the University of Istanbul emerged. Madrasahs in other towns in Bosnia and Herzegovina did not attain the same level of education like this one, although some professors (muderis) earned fame in the Capital of the Ottoman Empire, like Mustafa Ejubovi , or Sheikh Jujo /Youyo/, from Mostar in 18th century. Austro-Hungarian Period When the Austro-Hungarian Empire came to Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, it introduced the system of public or, rather, state- dominated schools for primary and secondary education. These schools existed side by side with the schools which were organised mostly according to the national and religious communities in the country (Bosniak-Moslem, Croat-Roman Catholic, Serb-Orthodox and Jewish, but there were also schools in German (and even in Hungarian) language intended for the civil servants's children whose parents had come to Bosnia and worked in the state administration. The Austria- Hungary did not envisage the establishment of the higher education institutions, because it thought they had to wait for the overall system of education to be developed. The most talented students from Bosnia and Herzegovina continued their University studies throughout the Empire, mostly in Vienna, Prague, Pozhun (Bratislava) or Budapest. Nevertheless, the Roman Catholic Church, under the guidance of Archbishop Stadler, supported the activities of theological institutions: the Bosnian Franciscans's and Diocese Theological Schools, respectively, in Sarajevo, and the Herzegovina Franciscans's Theological School in Mostar. The Bosnian Franciscans's Theological School moved first from Fojnica and Kre evo (1851) to Livno (1905), and, finally, to Sarajevo (1909), whereas the Diocese Theological School was opened in Sarajevo in 1890. The Herzegovina Franciscans's Theological School was founded in Mostar in 1895. These institutions were very similar to the schools of the kind in Western Europe, and they used the same textbooks, mostly in Latin. The Orthodox Theological School opened at Reljevo near Sarajevo in 1882, and the School for Sharia Law, based on the Islamic Sharia principles, in Sarajevo in 1887. Some contemporary historians of education in Bosnia and Herzegovina claim that the Roman Catholic Theological Schools represented higher education institutions in the modern sense of a term, but they could not be considered to be real universities. Kingdom of Yugoslavia Period Even in the period in between World Wars, when Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918-1941), about 1,000 students, who completed their secondary education throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina, continued their higher education studies in Belgrade, Zagreb, Ljubljana, Vienna, Prague or Munich. Some of them went to other places, too, but these ones were the universities where the students from Bosnia usually pursued their university degrees. Only in 1937, the Higher Islamic Sharia Law School was opened in Sarajevo. Its teachers had the same status as the University professors in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. For this reason, this institution was called The Islamic Sharia Law College (Faculty). Three years later, the Ministry of Education of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia passed a decree on the establishment of the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry in Sarajevo (March 21, 1940). The teachers and the dean were appointed from the same Faculty in Belgrade. This faculty had 127 students enrolled in the first year of study in the academic 1940/1941. 27 of them were girls. Although the classes were supposed to commence in October 1940, they did not begin until January 1941, and were dismissed in April 1941, when, after the attack by the Nazi Germany and Italy, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ceased to exist. World War II Period During World War II, when Bosnia and Herzegovina was a part of the newly created Independent State of Croatia (which was comprised of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of Vojvodina), Medical Faculty was opened in Sarajevo on March 29, 1944. 60 students enrolled in the first year of study, but the courses of instruction were cancelled soon due to the war activities. Period after World War II The real beginning of higher education in Bosnia and Herzegovina must be connected with the period after World War II. After the Allies defeated the Nazi Germany and Italy, with the strong support of the Communist led resistance movement under Marshal Tito's leadership, this part of Europe saw once more the emergence of Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the six countries labelled as Republics, which, together with two autonomous provinces within the Republic of Serbia, comprised Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia. Education, in general, was considered to be one of the most important activities for the reconstruction and development of the country, badly devastated in the World War II. Although the majority of population in Bosnia and Herzegovina was virtually illiterate, the new Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (established in April, 1945), also drew plans for the institutions of higher education. The primary emphasis was, of course, on primary and secondary education. There was a major change in the approach to education. The state controlled schools were favoured to the private owned ones, or those sponsored by religious communities. The first Five Years Plan in 1946/47 paid a special attention to the qualified teachers and other personnel required for the higher education. The main idea was to change Bosnia and Herzegovina from a backward agrarian country to an industrially developed one with a large number of its own specialists with higher education. The shortage of personnel with higher education in Bosnia and Herzegovina could not be overcome simply by training at the existing university centres throughout Federal People s Republic of Yugoslavia, in Belgrade, Zagreb, Ljubljana, or abroad. In this Republic in 1948 there were only 4,000 people with higher education, and the needs were considerably greater. First Institutions of Higher Education Having planned the needs for qualified staff with higher education degrees in f Bosnia and Herzegovina, the government of the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina decided to establish individual institutions (faculties). Among the first ones was the Faculty of Medicine in Sarajevo, which began to operate on November 16, 1946. Within the Faculty, there were 13 institutes and 10 clinics. The Faculty of Law began to function on February 6, 1947, and the Federal College of Agriculture for Mountain Husbandry on November 5, 1947. The Law passed on December 17, 1948 changed the College into the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry. Then on November 25, 1949, instruction began at the Faculty of Engineering (2 departments were formed: architecture and civil engineering). The Faculty of Veterinary Science began work on September 16, 1950, and the Faculty of Philosophy on November 1, 1950. Instruction at the Faculty of Philosophy was organised into 8 departments or groups: history, history of Yugoslav literature and Serbo-Croat language, French language and literature, German language and literature, Oriental philology, mathematics, chemistry, and geography. Sarajevo, Mostar and Banja Luka were also considered as suitable places for education of teachers. The Advanced Pedagogical Schools, with two years of study, opened in these towns in 1946 and 1950, respectively. These higher education institutions were deemed to be a right basis for future development. With this in mind, the National Assembly of the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina passed the Law on the Opening of the University of Sarajevo on September 11, 1949. The university was opened on December 2, 1949. The first Rector (vice-chancellor) was Professor Vaso Butozan. YEAR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS TOTAL NUMBER OF ENROLLED STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF GRADUATE STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA 1939 30 0 21,253 0 2,594 0 1,390 0 1946 40 3 39,239 655 1,021 0 2,040 47 1947 48 4 46,104 1,041 1,447 0 2,551 96 1948 63 5 58,661 1,454 2,211 87 4,210 189 1949 76 6 60,028 1,845 3,170 47 5,406 443 Period between 1950-1960 Within the framework of development of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina was supposed to become a place where the process of industrialisation would transform the appearance of the country, based mostly on the rich deposits of mineral ores and wood. Like everything else in this period, planning of development was strongly centralised for the whole of Yugoslavia and the local authorities simply followed the ideas and decrees from the country's capital Belgrade. When the Federal authorities in Yugoslavia defined the scope of development in higher education in Yugoslavia in 1954, it was the first document of the kind ever passed in the country. This was seen as a basis for each Republic to start working on the similar law on its own level. In 1955, the Musical Academy in Sarajevo was founded as the first one of the arts oriented higher education institutions. Towards the end of Fifties, more departments and faculties were opened, not only in Sarajevo but also in Tuzla and Mostar. The number of students and teachers gradually increased, as well as the number of candidates who pursued their postgraduate studies and took their Master s or Doctoral degree. It is interesting to note that in the period 1952-1959, 48 persons took their Ph.D., and almost half of them were from the faculties of Veterinary Sciences and Agriculture. The others took their degrees at the faculties of Philosophy, Law, Construction Engineering and Medicine. YEAR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS TOTAL NUMBER OF ENROLLED STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF GRADUATE STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA 1950 84 10 59,822 2,857 4,006 122 4,923 385 1951 83 10 54,763 3,246 5,612 249 4,564 435 1952 80 10 54,368 3,597 6,810 202 5,125 505 1953 81 10 57,533 4,175 6,928 357 5,531 512 1954 89 10 69,997 5,014 7,227 272 5,853 581 1955 81 10 69,650 5,228 7,939 381 6,418 586 1956 98 12 71,852 6,432 8,286 524 7,224 648 1957 110 12 82,882 6,806 8,392 561 7,916 761 1958 122 15 96,890 7,799 10,206 866 8,494 999 1959 143 20 104,786 9,349 12,220 1,157 10,355 1,207 Period between 1960 and 1970 One of the permanent issues discussed in the course of the Sixties within the University of Sarajevo was a need to reform its courses of instruction, which remained to be traditional and somewhat conservative for a number of years, if not decades. These discussions coincided with the overall request for a peculiar aspect of the Yugoslav political system known as self-management. The higher education institutions were encouraged to become closer connected with companies which would presumably hire their graduates. This, in turn, meant a significant revision in curricula, including looking at both the quality and type of personnel needs of companies (described as organisations of associated labour ). Stronger demands were made for contemporary content, methods, and forms of instruction. Significant efforts to intensify and rationalise instruction to 20 or 25 hours weekly were deliberated, as well as efforts to shorten the length of study to 4 years, with the exception of instruction at the Faculty of Medicine, which continued to last for 5 years. The demand was also made that the total load of students should not exceed 42 hours each week. Academic instruction was limited to 10 months (two semesters) with the breaks in January and during the months of July and August for holidays. Significant changes were introduced in the method of following and evaluating the development and work of students. The reform affirmed many new forms of work with students. There was increasing attention directed towards the students engagement in instruction (through lectures, exercises, seminar papers, and bachelor's theses), participation of students in self-management institutions (at the departmental level and university), and participation in the cultural and social life of their respective community. YEAR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS TOTAL NUMBER OF ENROLLED STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF GRADUATE STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA 1960 205 27 140,574 11,566 14,928 1,408 12,475 1,498 1961 244 32 158,010 15,694 17,363 1,638 13,790 1,619 1962 259 35 160,092 17,555 22,907 1,697 15,002 1,793 1963 260 35 160,595 19,575 25,799 1,960 15,749 1,898 1964 263 35 170,499 20,115 27,312 2,421 15,760 1,955 1965 266 34 184,923 22,756 27,952 2,594 15,715 1,792 1966 267 34 195,454 24,931 28,678 2,972 15,950 1,810 1967 262 33 210,810 26,635 29,179 3,048 16,221 n.a. 1968 258 33 231,444 29,772 30,833 2,977 16,497 n.a. 1969 247 33 239,701 31,108 31,256 3,339 16,783 1,794 1970 247 33 261,203 31,414 31,872 3,477 17,555 n.a. Period between 1970 and 1980 In the first stage, the development of higher education in Bosnia and Herzegovina was directed towards the University of Sarajevo, with moderate development of the regional centres and future universities in Banja Luka, Mostar, Tuzla and Zenica. Higher education in Bosnia and Herzegovina attained its greatest development in the period after 1975, when three more university centres were formed: in Banja Luka (1975), in Tuzla (1976), and Mostar (1977). That caused a rapid increase in the number of full-time and part-time students in Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to statistics available, in the school year 1977/78, 53,823 students were enrolled at universities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, out of whom 31,229 were full-time students and 22,594 part-time students. In the Seventies, the trends for a diversification of studies and a dispersion of higher education institutions throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina were justified in the plans for the further development of the country. The larger regions around the centres in Banja Luka, Mostar and Tuzla demanded to have their own share in the envisaged network of Universities. The political leadership of Bosnia and Herzegovina not only supported the requests from the regions, but, in some cases, even suggested to them to be more insistent in their claims. Specific political measures were undertaken in order to give a new boost to the higher education, which was considered as a "natural" continuation of the secondary education. New departments and faculties were founded and a number of research institutes and organisations followed. The first departments outside the University of Sarajevo soon became the nuclei of the independent faculties. They relied heavily on the teachers and other staff from the University of Sarajevo, but a number of teachers was hired from the more developed universities such as Zagreb and Belgrade. In certain cases, the same person would travel around the country and give lectures or take exams in one place, only to move to another one, and then come back to its department or faculty at the University of Sarajevo. The quality of education suffered immensely in this period although this trend caused a number of young graduates to consider their employment with the newly created departments, faculties and, from the mid Seventies, the Universities as their first choice. Some of them continued their postgraduate studies immediately after the completion of their studies, primarily in the Universities of Yugoslavia, but the most talented ones went abroad. They sought and acquired grants and scholarships throughout the Universities of Western Europe and USA, and a small portion of them studied in the countries of the former Soviet block. Not all of them came back, but there was a growing tendency to making the teaching personnel younger and better qualified. Certain disciplines were favoured because of the political changes in the country after the Constitution of 1974, when the emphasis seemed to be on the experts trained in law and economy. Traditionally, there was a constant demand for more technical and biomedical studies, but it was comparatively more difficult to provide enough funds and people to start a new department or the faculty in these fields of study. Nevertheless, the end of the Seventies saw a real explosion of departments and faculties in four Universities (Sarajevo /with Zenica as its part/, Banja Luka /and Biha /, Tuzla /with Br ko/ and Mostar) and a few attempts to establish higher education institutions (advanced schools lasting two years) in the places such as Doboj, Gora de and Trebinje which were soon abandoned as too costly and inappropriate even for the local needs. At this time, the situation with higher education in Bosnia and Herzegovina was as follows: YEAR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS TOTAL NUMBER OF ENROLLED STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF GRADUATE STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA 1971 252 33 282,546 38,125 31,779 3,909 18,363 n.a. 1972 262 33 301,758 37,667 33,137 3,766 19,197 1,916 1973 262 32 328,536 39,541 37,715 4,694 19,965 n.a. 1974 289 37 359,651 42,449 41,721 6,262 20,764 n.a. 1975 303 43 393,801 47,613 43,914 6,859 21,595 1,904 1976 319 45 405,680 52,220 45,550 7,577 22,416 n.a. 1977 336 50 424,375 58,062 48,276 6,918 23,269 2,536 1978 349 53 439,724 61,995 50,080 6,661 23,968 2,693 1979 351 53 447,808 65,567 54,178 7,919 24,237 2,403 1980 356 53 411,175 61,427 56,370 7,243 24,596 2,243 In the school year 1977/78, the UNIVERSITY OF SARAJEVO had 26 institutions of higher education: 19 faculties, 2 academies, and 5 advanced schools. There were also 4 institutes associated with the University. In the same school year, 35,169 students (20,961 full-time and 14,208 part-time) were enrolled at the University of Sarajevo. The organisations of higher education were classified into 5 groups: Higher-Education Organisations of Biotechnical Sciences: Faculty of Agriculture (established with the Faculty of Forestry in 1949, separated in 1959), Faculty of Forestry (established with the Faculty of Agriculture in 1949, separated in 1959), Faculty of Science and Mathematics (its departments were established within the Faculty of Philosophy in 1950, separated in 1960). Higher-Education Organisations in Humanities: Faculty of Law (1946), Faculty of Philosophy (1950), Faculty of Economics (1952), Faculty of Physical Education (1974 - previously the Advanced School for Physical Education, 1963); Faculty of Political Science (1966 - previously the Advanced School of Political Science 1961), Advanced School of Administration (1956), Advanced School of Social Work (1957), Advanced School for Economics and Commerce (1960), Pedagogical Academy (1969 - previously the Advanced School for Pedagogy, 1946). Higher-Education Organisations of Medical Sciences: Faculty of Medicine (1946), Faculty of Veterinary Science (1950), Advanced School of Medicine (1973), Faculty of Dental Medicine (1974), Faculty of Pharmacology (1974). Higher-Education Organisations of the Technical Sciences: Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning (196l - previously the Department of Architecture in the Faculty of Engineering, 1949), Faculty of Civil Engineering (196l - previously the Department of Civil Engineering at the Faculty of Engineering, 1949), Faculty of Electrical Engineering (1961), Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (1961), Faculty of Metallurgy in Zenica (1961), Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Zenica (1961), and Faculty of Transportation 1978). Art Academies: Music Academy (1955), Academy of Fine Arts (1972), Academy of Dramatic Arts (1981). The following institutes were linked with the University: Biological Institute; Institute for Architecture, Urbanism, and Area Planning; Institute for Automation and Computer Science; Institute of Energy Sources. Besides these, in the individual faculties at the University of Sarajevo there were 53 institutes, 13 clinics, 4 laboratories, many more instructional facilities and classrooms, and one computer centre. In terms of research and reference, the needs of higher education at the University of Sarajevo were supposed to be met within the premises of the National and University Library. In 1977/78, in its reading rooms there were 1,115,737 volumes (books and journals) and 280,184 volumes in special collections. The University of Sarajevo had five facilities for the housing of students in its dormitories with 3,832 beds, and the dormitory in Zenica had 228 beds. Students could use state supported restaurants in the city for their meals. Some faculties managed their own small canteens. THE UNIVERSITY OF BANJA LUKA was founded on November 7, 1975. It was comprised of 6 faculties, 3 advanced schools, and 9 institutes. In the school year 1977/78, 8,423 students studied at the University of Banja Luka, out of whom 4,373 were full-time and 4,150 were part-time students. The University also had as its members several instructional and research organisations. Organisations of Higher Education: Faculty of Economics (1975 - previously a department in the Faculty of Economics in Sarajevo 1974), Faculty of Electrical Engineering (1975 - previously a department in the Faculty of Engineering 1960), Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (1975 - previously a department of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Sarajevo, 1973), Faculty of Medicine (1978), Faculty of Law (1975), Pedagogical Academy (1969 - earlier the Advanced School for Pedagogy 1950), School of Chemical Engineering (1975 - previously Faculty of Engineering 1960). Advanced School of Economics and Commerce (1975 - began to operate in 1959), Advanced Technical School in Biha (1975). Research Organisations: Economics Institute; Institute for Testing Building Materials; Incel Institute for Chemical Processing of Wood; Jel ingrad Research Development Centre; Rudi ajevec Institute for Professional Electronics; Vrbas Research-Development Centre; Agricultural Institute; Veterinary Cattle Centre; Institute of Defence. THE UNIVERSITY OF TUZLA, was established on December 18, 1976, and it had 5 faculties, 1 advanced school, and 6 institutes. In the school year 1977/78 at the University of Tuzla 5,116 students studied, out of whom 3,240 were full-time and 1,876 were part-time. The University of Tuzla was founded because of the needs of local economy for qualified professional and research personnel. A number of instructional and research organisations were also members of the university. Organisations of Higher Education: Faculty of Engineering (1959), Faculty of Mining and Geology (1960), Faculty of Economics in Br ko (1976 - previously the Advanced School of Economics and Commerce, 1976), Faculty of Electrical Engineering in Sarajevo (1972), Pedagogical Academy (1969 - previously the Advanced School for Pedagogy, 1960). Research Organisations: Institute for Chemical Engineering; Institute for the Processing of Coal and Coal-based Chemistry; Institute for Mining Research; Institute for Defence and Education; Institute for Economics; and the Centre for Electronic Data Processing. THE D EMAL BIJEDI UNIVERSITY IN MOSTAR, was established on February 11, 1977 and it had 4 faculties, 1 advanced school, and 2 institutes. At the University in the school year 1977/78, 5,016 students studied, out of whom 2,656 were full-time and 2,360 were part-time. The University also had several instructional and research organisations as its members. Organisations of Higher Education: Faculty of Economics (1976 - previously a department of the Economic Faculty in Sarajevo, 1971); Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (1976 - previously the Advanced School of Mechanical Engineering, 1959); Faculty of Law (1976 - previously a department of the Faculty of Law in Sarajevo, 1971); Faculty of Civil Engineering (1978); Pedagogical Academy (1969 -earlier the Advanced School for Pedagogy, 1950). Research Organisations: Tobacco Institute (1970); The HEPOK Company Research Development Centre in Mostar (1969). Period between 1980-1990 In the Eighties, the trend was almost reverse. Growing problems after President Tito's death in 1980, first in terms of economy and later on in view of increasing political instability, prevented the further development and more substantial enlargement of the existing universities. A public expenditure was seen as one of the most destabilising components in the country's economy. Education in general suffered the most in the 1980/81-1990/91 period. The normal activities in higher education were greatly affected. For the first time higher education was not given even the modest share in the Gross National Product. In 1990, it amounted to only 0.84% with a rather slow prediction for the increase in the next fifteen years when it was supposed to reach 0.90% of GNP. Since about 70% of the income for higher education came from the budget, Universities struggled to retain the level of development at the expense of cutting down both their more ambitious plans for future, the predicted enrolment and the number of teaching and other staff. The number of students decreased and the number of teaching staff increased on a slower rate than normally envisaged. Part-time students were clearly discouraged to continue their education in such a status. The manner of instruction for them was poorly organised. They had to rely on a self- study not attending the classes on a regular basis. On the other hand, they proved to be more efficient in passing their exams and reaching the requirements for the final certificate. There was a growing discontent in the country that their quality of education was not high enough to the standards required, and that they could jeopardise the chances for the full-time students to enter the job market after their completion of studies. This decrease was best seen in the number of students per 100,000 inhabitants. In 1981/82, this number was 1,461 and ten years later it was only 864. The situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1990/91 was slightly better in comparison to the countries such as Albania and Romania, but much worse than in Bulgaria or other countries from the former Communist block. The percentage of the normal student population in the age between 19-23 who could continue their studies after the secondary education also dropped from 15.2% in 1981/82 to 9.5% in 1990/91. In 1990/91 school year, a majority of students still studied at the University of Sarajevo (63% in comparison to 67% in 1980/81) although there was a slight tendency in favour of Banja Luka (17.2% in 1990/91 : 15.2% in 1980/81) and Tuzla (11.5% : 9.1), whereas Mostar retained its steady 8.3% in the ten years period compared. This tendency did not represent a distribution of population throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina which became more or less stable in the major regions. The Banja Luka and Biha regions had together 1.1 million people in 1991, Tuzla 953,000; Doboj and Zenica 979,000; Sarajevo 843,000; and Mostar almost 500,000. Students generally tried to study closer to their homes, but they also had preferences to the actual place of study. This could be explained also in terms of possibilities for the students from the regions of Banja Luka and Biha (North-western Bosnia) who could also enrol at the University of Zagreb, and those from Tuzla (North-eastern Bosnia) who could pursue their studies in Belgrade and Novi Sad. Nevertheless, about 23% of students enrolled in Bosnian Universities came from outside the country, mostly from Western Serbia, Montenegro and the parts of Croatia bordering Bosnia (mostly from Dalmatian coast). A number of students came to study here from the Third World countries. Tuzla seemed attractive mostly because of its technical sciences, whereas Banja Luka tried to become a full scale developed University, very similar in its structure to the University of Sarajevo. The University of Mostar was rather underdeveloped in comparison to the other centres, mostly because the funds for the new faculties were not readily available any more, and the economic potentials of the region were not sufficient enough to provide for the opening of new departments or faculties. YEAR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS TOTAL NUMBER OF ENROLLED STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF GRADUATE STUDENTS TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA YU BOSNIA 1981 358 52 402,037 60,263 57,286 7,160 24,905 2,137 1982 357 53 386,356 58,306 57,121 6,907 25,005 2,186 1983 350 54 374,275 50,571 55,788 7,227 25,882 2,773 1984 340 55 359,175 47,364 54,619 6,893 25,629 2,750 1985 330 52 349,013 47,036 51,477 6,495 24,992 3,191 1986 326 51 349,654 45,716 49,704 6,107 25,673 3,377 Banja Luka and Tuzla were also very pronounced in their requests to alter the structure and profiles of the studies offered there. The University of Tuzla did not want to be only "technical" but also "humanistic", and Banja Luka wanted to expand to such areas like Agriculture or Teacher Training with the respective Pedagogical faculty (out of the existing Pedagogical Academy). There were similar ideas in Mostar, too, which revolved around aspects of civil engineering (based on hydro power potentials of the Neretva River) and horticulture (based on growing of flowers and several types of fruits). Sarajevo tried to maintain the scope of its faculties and academies by reducing the number of advanced schools, or by simply closing them down, thus favouring the longer years of study and the quality it had already attained in comparison to the "younger" universities in Bosnia. In the years that lead to the dissolution of Yugoslavia and the creation of newly independent states on its former territory, financial problems altered the traditional approach on financing the higher education. The money for higher education was for decades obtained through the funds secured at the level of the Republic (central government), but they proved not to be sufficient. Other methods had to be approached in order to make up for the lacking amounts. School fees were considered as one of the means of obtaining the missing funds in the transitional period towards the market oriented economy. They were supposed to participate in the overall structure with 6.5% of the total sum needed for higher education. Universities were stimulated to render their services to companies and earn a better part of their income there. Research activities were directed towards instruction, on one hand, whereas, on the other, they were also meant to secure the missing funds. Since 80% of the scientific potentials in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1991 was employed on various higher education institutions, this strategy was seen as the appropriate way of using the existing human and resources better than before. Apart from that, additional 50 million US $ were invested into research activities under the scheme of supporting the younger and promising experts who could help introducing more sophisticated and recent technologies into the country's economic structure. YEAR NUMBER OF STUDENT ENROLLED NUMBER OF STUDENTS GRADUATED PER CENT OF GRADUATE STUDENTS 1982 60.263 6.907 11.5 1983 58.306 7.227 12.4 1984 50.571 6.893 13.6 1985 47.364 6.495 13.7 1986 47.036 6.107 13.0 1987 45.716 5.914 13.0 1988 45.839 5.751 12.5 1989 41.693 5.391 13.0 1990 40.490 5.235 13.0 TOTAL 55.922 MAJOR TRENDS IN STUDENTS ENROLMENT TOTAL NUMBER OF STUDENTS AT B&H FACULTIES SCHOOL YEAR (1981-82. - 1985-86. ) 1981-82 1985-86 TREND IN % HUMANITIES 28,278 16,476 - 41,8 MEDICINE SCIENCES 6,254 6,603 + 5,5 TECHNICAL SCIENCES 10,277 13,108 + 27,5 BIOTECHNICAL SCIENCES 2,920 4,370 + 49,6 1986-87 1990-91 TREND IN % HUMANITIES 14,857 12,867 - 13,4 MEDICINE SCIENCES 6,500 5,442 - 16,3 TECHNICAL SCIENCES 13,263 13,530 + 0,2 BIOTEHNICAL SCIENCES 4,658 2,805 + 40,0 MAJOR TRENDS IN LAST DECADE TREND Total number of enroled student decreased 1981-82 47.729 1990-91 34.644 - 27.4 % Total number of enrolled student at Social science severely decreased 1981-82 28,278 1990-91 12,867 - 54,5 % Total number of students at Technical Sciences increased 1981-82 10,277 1990-91 13,530 +31,6 % Total number of students at Medical and Biotechnical Sciences decreased 1981-82 6,254 1990-91 5,492 - 13,0 % 2,920 2,805 - 3,4 % The 1992-1995 War Effects on Higher Education The aggression against the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina disrupted the normal functioning of all levels of education. Higher education was not exempted from this situation. A number of students and teachers were forced to leave their homes, or found themselves stranded outside their home towns in the early stage of the war, in the spring and summer of 1992. Some of them opted to join the aggressor's forces and took part actively in destroying their former colleagues's lives and the premises of their faculties and academies. The situation was different in various parts of the country. Due to the long period of siege, the University of Sarajevo suffered the most damages on its buildings, libraries, laboratories and equipment, whereas Tuzla, Zenica and Mostar, and even Biha , managed to either avoid the major scale destruction, or to prevent a further deterioration of their respective premises. Banja Luka was not in the zone of war activities, and from the information available, its infrastructure was not devastated. All the universities, however, had their share of disorder. A great number of students who remained in Bosnia and Herzegovina were mobilised in the military units and could not pursue their regular studies. Some of them lost their lives either as soldiers or as the innocent victims, such as those in Tuzla in a massacre on May 25, 1995. About 65% of teachers left their respective universities or were simply not able to continue their work as before. The majority of teachers and other staff who remained in the country also served in the Army, at least certain periods of time, but even if some of them were temporarily or permanently discharged from such duties, the education process could not be entirely restored as long as the fighting continued. One of the worst evils of this war, the ethnic purges, caused a number of students and teachers to leave the country, either by force or on their own accord. The exact number of them is not easy to assess, because both those who were at University and the new generations ready to enter higher education institutions found themselves abroad as refugees without being able to enrol to the universities in certain countries which were even ready to accept them. Some of those who were in the countries of former Yugoslavia (mostly the Universities in Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia) became overnight foreign citizens to whom the higher school fees and various ways of subtle discrimination because of their ethnic origin applied. The others had all kinds of difficulties to support themselves in the situation when their parents, or the members of family, could not provide for themselves but relied on the humanitarian assistance either in Bosnia or abroad. According to some estimates, at least 6,000 students from Bosnia studied abroad in the years 1992-1995. About 65% of teachers were no longer in their former places of residence. A very few of them managed to continue their University career abroad, usually as visiting professors or fellows. Some were offered shorter periods study grants or research scholarships, more as isolated cases, out of solidarity from the colleagues at those Universities, than as a part of their normal activities. Those who stayed in Bosnia were exposed to all kinds of hardship, but stubbornly continued to keep the courses of instruction under sometimes impossible circumstances - without proper premises, without food, heating, teaching materials, libraries, let alone new books and periodicals. New Higher Education Institutions The disruption in the country's higher education structure was caused by the major changes which took part in different parts of the country. The University of Banja Luka cut its former ties with the Association of Universities of Bosnia and Herzegovina and tried to become linked almost entirely with the Universities in Serbia and Montenegro. The D emal Bijedi University in Mostar was the target of the aggression in the early stage of the war. The University courses were moved to the town of Neum on the Adriatic coast where the instruction was held until the summer of 1994. In the end of 1992, a change of name of the university was decided by the Croatian political and university authorities by a decree according to which the name of university was changed from the D emal Bijedi University to Croatian University of Mostar . This change of name was not accepted by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Parliament of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the conflict between the Croats and Bosniaks in May 1993, and the effective control of the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) forces over the Western part of the City of Mostar, and the emergence of the self-styled Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia , a number of students and teachers were expelled from the West part of Mostar. Some of them were even detained for a while in detention or concentration camps, and sent to the third countries, mostly to Scandinavia. The premises of the "D emal Bijedi " University were claimed to be the seat of the University of Mostar under the authority of the Ministry of Education of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia . The buildings and other premises of the university were repaired in 1994 and the courses of instruction resumed. However, the remaining teachers and students in East Mostar were not allowed to go back to their premises on the West side. They continued to function in the limited capacity and under very difficult circumstances as the "D emal Bijedi " University, having organised their courses of instruction in such places as Jablanica and Konjic, some 40 or 50 kilometres north from Mostar. Later on, the classes were organised in Mostar as well. The major problems this part of the City is still confronted with in terms of higher education is the lack of suitable premises and equipment, labs and library, but the most pronounce one was the lack of teaching staff. All the attempts to reunite these two parts of Mostar, as well as to restore the one University of Mostar, did not produce any results even under the newly created Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina after the Washington Agreements in March 1994. The University on the West side of the City of Mostar added two more faculties to those which were there as members of the D emal Bijedi University before the war. The Pedagogical Faculty emerged from the former Pedagogical Academy in September of 1994. It has seven departments or teaching groups: pre- school, multi-subject class teaching (for primary education, grades one to four), math and physics, biology and chemistry, Croatian and English, Croatian and German, Croatian language and Literature. In March 1996, Academy of Fine Arts was established in the nearby town of iroki Brijeg. Although the freedom of movement was re-established in February 1996 after the Dayton Accords and the Rome Declaration, Mostar still has two universities which are usually referred to as Mostar West and Mostar East. The prospect of joining them, or solving this burning issue could not yet be foreseen with certainty. In the first few years of the war, the communication was entirely disrupted between the regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the students from these regions could not remain in their original places of study. Most of them managed somehow to go to their homes. There was also a number of students in the regions of Tuzla, Zenica and Travnik who completed their secondary education and wanted to pursue their studies in their home regions. Since certain faculties were available in Sarajevo only, and the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina was under the siege throughout the period commencing of May 2, 1992 to March 19, 1996; there was a strong demand uttered in certain regions to establish the faculties that could meet their needs for qualified people with higher education degrees. In order to meet these demands, the normal legal procedure had been applied and Pedagogical academies were founded in Zenica and Biha (1993), as well as the Faculty of Philosophy (from former Pedagogical Academy, 1993) and the Faculty of Defectology in Tuzla (1993). Towards the end of 1995, the Faculty of Machine Engineering was established in Biha (from the former Advanced Technical School). The higher education institutions in Zenica and Biha were seen as the integral parts of the University of Sarajevo, although there were some requests from these places which asked to become universities of their own. Whereas the University of Sarajevo continued its activities with all its pre-war faculties and academies in the territory of the City controlled by the legal government of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (with the exception of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in the suburb of Lukavica near Sarajevo), the authorities of self-styled "Republika Srpska" claimed to have established the University of Serbian Sarajevo with more or less same types of institutions on the territories under their control. Since there were no real possibility to check and verify the existence of such university, one could not offer more reliable data on its organisation and the courses of instruction. The similar problem existed with the universities of Banja Luka and Mostar West, and this survey must remain necessarily incomplete until the situation permits all the necessary facts and data to be examined and presented in the proper way. For this reason, the situation in Sarajevo, Tuzla, Biha and Zenica would be presented on a basis of data gathered in these places. THE POLITICAL, LEGAL AND FINANCING FRAMEWORK OF HIGHER EDUCATION Approach to Higher Education in the Period between 1945-1974 Since the establishment of the higher education institutions took place in the period after World War II when Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the other former Yugoslav Republics, were for 45 years under the exclusive state-supported and controlled system of education, the legal and financing framework reflected the political system and the structure of the country. It was the system usually labeled as "Communism", or, in the case of Tito's Yugoslavia, the "Yugoslav kind of Socialism". Education was declared to be one of the most important goals which the country and its people should strive for. Students from a working class background were particularly stimulated to study for a higher education degree since, by definition, earning of such a degree had been considered to be one of the most exclusive privileges of the "higher" classes in society. Certain measures were introduced in order to change the structure of the students wishing to pursue their studies. For a number of years, almost until the mid-Sixties, there was a strict planning imposed on those who could continue their studies. Those students who qualified as ideologically loyal to the political system were given a chance to choose the faculty or academy in the university of their own preference. Others were simply ordered to enroll in the disciplines which had not been filled in or had been considered to take more time to complete. School fees were abolished from the very beginning, and the education was declared "free". The ruling party and the government tried to encourage the number of secondary schools' graduates to continue their studies at universities. However, the students's parents or their families had to provide own funds for their studies. Students had to pay for their lodging, meals, clothing, books and other incidental expenses. Some students worked part time in order to support themselves. Although the system of scholarships and students' loans was introduced under the wider scheme of supporting secondary school pupils and university students, it could not provide enough money for covering the living costs. It primarily meant to leverage the growing differences among the students, those coming from wealthier families or with more financial means to continue their studies in the more prestigious universities throughout the former Yugoslavia proved to a real obstacle towards the projected change in the educated elite. It is true that a large number of gifted students, coming from poor families or small places, both urban and rural, entered universities and took their degrees, but this fact did not alter the envisaged dominance of the working class in society. When the entrance to universities became more liberal towards the end of the Sixties, and particularly after the students's unrest in 1968 asking for more social justice among the students, the need was felt to apply more pronounced changes in the higher education. Higher Education after the 1974 Constitution The Yugoslav Federal Constitution of 1974 definitely vested its powers in terms of education, culture, science, sports and information to the constituent Republics. In fact, they assumed the authority of becoming almost independent states in these particular spheres. All of them, Bosnia and Herzegovina included, opted for a diversification of higher education. It resulted in the establishment of the universities at Banja Luka, Tuzla and Mostar in the mid-Seventies. Dominant Influence in the Higher Education Legal Framework The system, however, did not change its basic premises. Under the law on higher education, every single higher education institution (or "organization", as they were called in the manner which ought to have reflected the overall system of companies known as "organizations of associated labor") had to be confirmed by the Parliament of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Higher education was claimed to be of "a special importance" for the country's development and to be under the auspices of the highest political body in the country. This principle applied to each advanced school, academy or faculty, or the whole universities, for that matter. It meant that the adoption of each institution's statute, scope of activities, even a curriculum had to be confirmed after a detailed process of examination and public debate. Governing bodies of each institutions, called Councils, were comprised of one third of teachers and students, one third of the representatives from political structures, whereas the remaining third came from the companies or public institutions affiliated to the main area of study performed in such institutions. Higher education institutions had to be members of universities. Only the religious schools were exempted from such an obligation, but they had not been even considered as higher education institutions under the current legislation. In theory, this distribution of influence was supposed to link the faculties and universities with their most immediate political, professional and territorial surrounding under the system of "self-management" democracy. Councils nominally appointed deans and rectors (vice- chancellors), but the political influence of the ruling Communist Party (or the "League of Communists") remained dominant throughout the whole period. Financing of the Higher Education Financing came from several sources. For the number of decades it was entirely carried out by the central government. Towards the end of the Sixties the public funds for financing various institutions in education, science, culture and physical education were introduced in order to identify their particular recipients and beneficiaries. These public funds had a steady income based on the certain percentage of the Gross National Product. In the case of higher education it never exceeded 1% although, in certain periods, there were considerable investments in higher education infrastructure (buildings, laboratories, equipment, teaching aids and materials etc.). The salaries of the university lecturers and other staff lagged behind. The status of university professor meant more in terms of public respect and esteem than in benefits such as a decent if not high salary, comfortable housing with adequate study rooms, a possibility to provide means for research within the university premises, a further continuation of postgraduate studies in larger universities at home or abroad. A number of qualified graduates were discouraged to enter University teaching as a career. Some of the most talented ones could not even hope to become lecturers in Bosnian universities and went abroad, especially in the Seventies and Eighties. There was a "silent brain-drain" which persisted even there where the qualified postgraduates were in great demand. Most of the persons with postgraduate degrees claimed to have left the country because of the rather modest financial possibilities offered to them at universities. Nevertheless, a number of research activities and individual projects in the Eighties in Bosnia and Herzegovina was supposed to attract younger and talented lecturers to stay with their respective universities or research organizations. Different Approach in the Eighties The Eighties also saw the first signs of political instability, but also more liberal trends within the overall legal and financial framework of higher education. The central budget was not sufficient to cover the normal activities of universities. At least 30% of funds had to be sought elsewhere. Introducing school fees seemed the appropriate option, as well as rendering services to companies and other institutions interested in paying for them. In 1990, the structure of financial support to higher education was as follows: Public Fund for Higher Education 69% Rendering services to other parties 21% Fees and other sources of income 10% In the Nineties, rendering services and fees was supposed to increase, whereas the money provided by the Public fund for Higher Education would gradually decrease. It was seen as a normal transition stage towards the market oriented economy where the government budget collected from taxation would not be the dominant item in financing the higher education. The legal framework would follow, and the first attempts could be already felt in the Law on University passed in 1990 before the first multiparty elections. Disruptions Caused by the War The aggression against the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina had its devastating consequences primarily in view of providing funds for the normal education process. Teachers and other personnel did not receive their wages for months. Many premises were destroyed or damaged and there was no money available for their repair, let alone for a purchase of basic items needed in the education process. The Ministry of Education in the legal Government of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina could not secure funds that would alleviate high demands at this level of education. For the time being, the whole system was entirely disrupted, but then it gradually began to recover and was somehow re-connected on the territories under control of Bosnian Army. However, it could not bring together the parts controlled by the Croatian Defense Council (the "D emal Bijedi " University's premises located in the Western part of Mostar) and the territories under the control of self-proclaimed "Republika Srpska" regime at Pale (Banja Luka University). In order to maintain the higher education system, the Ministry of Education pressed the central government to provide regular salaries to the University lecturers. It was finally attained in the mid-1995 with the rather symbolic sums that were hardly adequate. From the minimal 1.5 DEM per month, the salaries raised in the first two months of 1996 to the range between 140-200 DEM. The Ministry also pressed other sources of income, such as European Union or incidental donors, who, at times, provided either food parcels or donations not exceeding 100 DEM per person employed in higher education. Discussion on the New Concept of University The legal framework was not altered, because it was felt that the actual changes should take place after the normal activities were resumed and universities functioned under the more favorable circumstances. In the course of 1993 and 1994, discussions were held in University circles about the future concept of Bosnian universities. Several items were agreed upon. Higher education in public universities should be strongly supported from the government secured budget. At least 70% of the funds needed would have come from the central budget. The remaining 30% would be gradually achieved through the school fees and the involvement of the University staff in the projects for reconstruction and the further development of the country. The autonomy of university should be re-inforced although the influence of both government and particular interest groups should not be neglected. There was a call for the rational approach to the number of faculties and universities, combined with the more restrictive approach to enrollment (numerus clausus) and the study groups offered to new students. University members with the right to vote would be limited to faculties and academies only whereas the advanced schools would be encouraged to extend their scope of study and to become faculties. The highest body within the University structure would be the Senate, and the Rector would be elected in a secret ballot by the full members of the University. There were other ideas which were meant to be incorporated into the new legislation envisaged after the war Legal Framework in Education under the Dayton Accords Nevertheless, the Washington Agreements in March 1994, and most particularly the Dayton Accords in November 1995, envisaged a radical change in the system. The education, culture, media, science and research were no longer considered as vital at the level of central government. They were transferred to the regions or cantons under the current political terminology. Although the Ministry of Education tried to argue that the higher education should have remained at the level of the country's central government and parliament at least for a period of time, it seems that it would belong to the cantonal administration. The definitive legal framework was not given the clear outlines, but it is certain that the new approach to the concept of higher education would have serious consequences for the future development of universities in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The most critical segment remained financing since the new territorial units - cantons - could not provide even the very limited funds in the postwar period for the reconstruction of the devastated premises, give new impetus for the research and development and secure salaries for the university personnel which could allow them to have a decent living until the level comparable to the same category of profession in the Western Europe is finally attained, but no longer than five years after the war. All these issues would be greatly affected by the level of international assistance regardless to the level of government under whose auspices the higher education system in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with all its current varieties and possible diversities in certain parts of its territory, would function in a near future. It would also change the quality of education and its longer term consequences for the overall development of the country.