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Grabowski, P.J. (2007) RNA-binding proteins switch gears to drive alternative splicing in neurons. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 14:577-579 An, P., and P.J. Grabowski (2007) Exon silencing by UAGG motifs in response to neuronal excitation. PLoS Biol. 5:e36 Alternative pre-mRNA splicing plays fundamental roles in neurons by generating functional diversity in proteins associated with the communication and connectivity of the synapse. The CI cassette of the NMDA R1 receptor is one of a variety of exons that show an increase in exon skipping in response to cell excitation, but the molecular nature of this splicing responsiveness is not yet understood. Here we investigate the molecular basis for the induced changes in splicing of the CI cassette exon in primary rat cortical cultures in response to KCl-induced depolarization using an expression assay with a tight neuron-specific readout. In this system, exon silencing in response to neuronal excitation was mediated by multiple UAGG-type silencing motifs, and transfer of the motifs to a constitutive exon conferred a similar responsiveness by gain of function. Biochemical analysis of protein binding to UAGG motifs in extracts prepared from treated and mock-treated cortical cultures showed an increase in nuclear hnRNP A1-RNA binding activity in parallel with excitation. Evidence for the role of the NMDA receptor and calcium signaling in the induced splicing response was shown by the use of specific antagonists, as well as cell-permeable inhibitors of signaling pathways. Finally, a wider role for exon-skipping responsiveness is shown to involve additional exons with UAGG-related silencing motifs, and transcripts involved in synaptic functions. These results suggest that, at the post-transcriptional level, excitable exons such as the CI cassette may be involved in strategies by which neurons mount adaptive responses to hyperstimulation.
Grabowski, P.J. (2005) Splicing-active nuclear extracts from rat brain. Methods 37:323-330 In the nervous system, alternative pre-mRNA splicing generates the diverse protein machineries needed for cell excitation and synaptic communication. Yet, many questions remain about how these mechanisms are regulated by RNA binding proteins in the environment of differentiated cells and tissues. Here, we describe the preparation and use of splicing active nuclear extracts derived from the cerebellum and cerebral cortex regions of rat brain as a resource for in vitro studies. These tissue-specific extracts promote the neuron-specific pathway of splicing, and display characteristic changes in hnRNP protein function and expression. These extracts can be used in combination with affinity selection and depletion/complementation assays to identify regulatory factors and to characterize their interactions and effects on spliceosome assembly. The ability to prepare extracts from brain regions at a range of postnatal ages provides opportunities to address related questions as a function of cell differentiation. These neuronal extracts may also be valuable for the development of in vitro assays to elucidate other neuron-specific RNA processing pathways, such as 3' end formation, RNA editing, or miRNA maturation.
Xu, X.M., H. Mix, B.A. Carlson, P.J. Grabowski, V.N. Gladyshev, M.J. Berry, and D.L... Hatfield (2005) Evidence for direct roles of two additional factors, SECp43 and SLA, in the selenoprotein synthesis machinery. J. Biol. Chem. 280:568-575 Selenocysteine (Sec) is inserted into selenoproteins co-translationally with the help of various cis- and trans-acting factors. The specific mechanisms of Sec biosynthesis and insertion into protein in eukaryotic cells, however, are not known. Two proteins, SECp43 and the soluble liver antigen (SLA), were previously reported to interact with tRNA[Ser]Sec, but their functions remained elusive. Herein, we report that knockdown of SECp43 in NIH3T3 or TCMK-1 cells using RNAi technology resulted in a reduction in the level of methylation at the 2'-hydroxylribosyl moiety in the wobble position (Um34) of Sec tRNA[Ser]Sec, and consequently reduced glutathione peroxidase 1 expression. Double knockdown of SECp43 and SLA resulted in decreased selenoprotein expression. SECp43 formed a complex with Sec tRNA[Ser]Sec and SLA, and the targeted removal of one of these proteins affected the binding of the other to Sec tRNA[Ser]Sec. SECp43 was located primarily in the nucleus whereas SLA was found in the cytoplasm. Cotransfection of both proteins resulted in the nuclear translocation of SLA suggesting that SECp43 may also promote shuttling of SLA and Sec tRNA[Ser]Sec between different cellular compartments. Taken together, these data establish the role of SECp43 and SLA in selenoprotein biosynthesis through interaction with tRNA[Ser]Sec in a multiprotein complex. The data also reveal a role of SECp43 in regulation of selenoprotein expression by affecting the synthesis of Um34 on tRNA[Ser]Sec and the intracellular location of SLA.
Han, K., G. Yeo, P. An, C.B. Burge, and P.J. Grabowski (2005) A combinatorial code for splicing silencing: UAGG and GGGG motifs. PLoS Biol. 3:e158 Alternative pre-mRNA splicing is widely used to regulate gene expression by tuning the levels of tissue-specific mRNA isoforms. Few regulatory mechanisms are understood at the level of combinatorial control despite numerous sequences, distinct from splice sites, that have been shown to play roles in splicing enhancement or silencing. Here we use molecular approaches to identify a ternary combination of exonic UAGG and 5'-splice-site-proximal GGGG motifs that functions cooperatively to silence the brain-region-specific CI cassette exon (exon 19) of the glutamate NMDA R1 receptor (GRIN1) transcript. Disruption of three components of the motif pattern converted the CI cassette into a constitutive exon, while predominant skipping was conferred when the same components were introduced, de novo, into a heterologous constitutive exon. Predominant exon silencing was directed by the motif pattern in the presence of six competing exonic splicing enhancers, and this effect was retained after systematically repositioning the two exonic UAGGs within the CI cassette. In this system, hnRNP A1 was shown to mediate silencing while hnRNP H antagonized silencing. Genome-wide computational analysis combined with RT-PCR testing showed that a class of skipped human and mouse exons can be identified by searches that preserve the sequence and spatial configuration of the UAGG and GGGG motifs. This analysis suggests that the multi-component silencing code may play an important role in the tissue-specific regulation of the CI cassette exon, and that it may serve more generally as a molecular language to allow for intricate adjustments and the coordination of splicing patterns from different genes.
Grabowski, P.J. (2004) A molecular code for splicing silencing: configurations of guanosine-rich motifs. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 32:924-927 Alternative pre-mRNA splicing is frequently used to expand the protein-coding capacity of genomes, and to regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. It is a significant challenge to decipher the molecular language of tissue-specific splicing because the inherent flexibility of these mechanisms is specified by numerous short sequence motifs distributed in introns and exons. In the present study, we employ the glutamate NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) R1 receptor (GRIN1) transcript as a model system to identify the molecular determinants for a brain region-specific exon silencing mechanism. We identify a set of guanosine-rich motifs that function co-operatively to regulate the CI cassette exon in a manner consistent with its in vivo splicing pattern. Whereas hnRNP (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein) A1 mediates silencing of the CI cassette exon in conjunction with the guanosine-rich motifs, hnRNP H functions as an antagonist to silencing. Genome-wide analysis shows that, while this motif pattern is rarely present in human and mouse exons, those exons for which the pattern is conserved are generally found to be skipped exons. The identification of a similar arrangement of guanosine-rich motifs in transcripts of the hnRNP H family of splicing factors has implications for their co-ordinate regulation at the level of splicing.
Miné, M., M. Brivet, G. Touati, P. Grabowski, M. Abitbol, and C. Marsac (2003) Splicing error in E1alpha pyruvate dehydrogenase mRNA caused by novel intronic mutation responsible for lactic acidosis and mental retardation. J. Biol. Chem. 278:11768-11772 An intronic point mutation was identified in the E1alpha PDH gene from a boy with delayed development and lactic acidosis, an X-linked disorder associated with a partial defect in pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) activity. Protein analysis demonstrated a corresponding decrease in immunoreactivity of the alpha and beta subunits of the PDH complex. In addition to the normal spliced mRNA product of the E1alpha PDH gene, patient samples contained significant levels of an aberrantly spliced mRNA with the first 45 nucleotides of intron 7 inserted in-frame between exons 7 and 8. The genomic DNA analysis found no mutation in the coding regions but revealed a hemizygous intronic G to A substitution 26 nucleotides downstream from the normal exon 7 5'-splice site. Splicing experiments in COS-7 cells demonstrated that this point mutation at intron 7 position 26 is responsible for the aberrant splicing phenotype, which involves a switch from the use of the normal 5'-splice site (intron 7 position 1) to the cryptic 5'-splice site downstream of the mutation (intron 7 position 45). The intronic mutation is unusual in that it generates a consensus binding motif for the splicing factor, SC35, which normally binds to exonic enhancer elements resulting in increased exon inclusion. Thus, the aberrant splicing phenotype is most likely explained by the generation of a de novo splicing enhancer motif, which activates the downstream cryptic 5'-splice site. The mutation documented here is a novel case of intron retention responsible for a human genetic disease.
Black, D.L., and P.J. Grabowski (2003) Alternative pre-mRNA splicing and neuronal function. Prog. Mol. Subcell. Biol. 31:187-216 Grabowski, P. (2002) Alternative splicing in parallel. Nat. Biotechnol. 20:346-347
Zhang, W., H. Liu, K. Han, and P.J. Grabowski (2002) Region specific alternative splicing in the nervous system: implications for regulation by the RNA binding protein, NAPOR. RNA 8:671-685 Alternative RNA splicing generates extensive proteomic diversity in the nervous system, yet few neural-specific RNA binding proteins have been implicated in splicing control. Here we show that the biochemical properties and spatial expression of mouse neuroblastoma apoptosis-related RNA-binding protein (NAPOR; also called NAPOR-1) are consistent with its roles in the regulation of the exon 5 and exon 21 splicing events of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor R1 transcript. NAPOR, which is closely related to CUG binding protein 2 (CUG-BP2), promotes exon 21 and represses exon 5 splicing in functional coexpression assays. These NMDA mRNA isoforms are distributed, in vivo, in a region-specific manner in rat brain, such that high levels of exon 21 selection and exon 5 skipping coincide with high NAPOR mRNA expression in the forebrain. Within the forebrain, this spatial correspondence is most striking in the visual cortex. In contrast, low NAPOR expression coincides with the reciprocal pattern of alternative splicing in the hindbrain. Complementary experiments demonstrate a tissue-specific distribution of NAPOR, CUG-BP, and other highly related proteins within the nervous system as assayed by probing forebrain and hindbrain nuclear extracts with monoclonal antibody, mAb 3B1. Thus, NAPOR may be one of a group of closely related proteins involved in splicing regulation within the brain. An intronic RNA element responsible for the silencing of exon 21 splicing is identified by mutational analysis and shown to bind directly to recombinant NAPOR protein, suggesting a model in which exon 21 selection is positively regulated by an antirepression mechanism of action.
Wu, J.I., R. Reed, P.J. Grabowski, and K. Artzt (2002) The function of quaking in myelination: Regulation of alternative splicing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 99:4233-4238 Proteomic diversity is frequently achieved by alternative RNA-splicing events that can be fine-tuned in tissue-specific and developmentally regulated ways. Understanding this type of genetic regulation is compelling because of the extensive complexity of alternative splicing found in the nervous system. quaking (qk), one of the classical mouse dysmyelination mutants, is defective for the expression of myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG), and the misregulation of MAG pre-mRNA alternative splicing is implicated as a causal factor. The qk locus encodes several RNA-binding proteins with heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K-type homology, a characteristic of several known alternative splicing regulators. Here we test the nuclear-localized qk isoform (QKI-5) for its ability to regulate alternative splicing of MAG pre-mRNA in transient coexpression assays. QKI-5 exhibits properties of a negative regulator of MAG exon 12 alternative splicing. An intronic sequence element required for the repressive function and binding of QKI-5 is also identified. Direct evidence for irregularities in alternative splicing of MAG and other myelin protein transcripts in the qk mouse is demonstrated.
Liu, H., W. Zhang, R. Reed, W. Liu, and P.J. Grabowski (2002) Mutations in RRM4 uncouple the splicing repression and RNA-binding activities of polypyrimidine tract binding protein. RNA 8:137-149 The polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB, or hnRNP I) contains four RNA-binding domains of the ribonucleoprotein fold type (RRMs 1, 2, 3, and 4), and mediates the negative regulation of alternative splicing through sequence-specific binding to intronic splicing repressor elements. To assess the roles of individual RRM domains in splicing repression, a neural-specific splicing extract was used to screen for loss-of-function mutations that fail to switch splicing from the neural to nonneural pathway. These results show that three RRMs are sufficient for wild-type RNA binding and splicing repression activity, provided that RRM4 is intact. Surprisingly, the deletion of RRM4, or as few as 12 RRM4 residues, effectively uncouples these functions. Such an uncoupling phenotype is unique to RRM4, and suggests a possible regulatory role for this domain either in mediating specific RNA contacts, and/or contacts with putative splicing corepressors. Evidence of a role for RRM4 in anchoring PTB binding adjacent to the branch site is shown by mobility shift and RNA footprinting assays.
Grabowski, P.J., and D.L. Black (2001) Alternative RNA splicing in the nervous system. Prog. Neurobiol. 65:289-308 Tissue-specific alternative splicing profoundly effects animal physiology, development and disease, and this is nowhere more evident than in the nervous system. Alternative splicing is a versatile form of genetic control whereby a common pre-mRNA is processed into multiple mRNA isoforms differing in their precise combination of exon sequences. In the nervous system, thousands of alternatively spliced mRNAs are translated into their protein counterparts where specific isoforms play roles in learning and memory, neuronal cell recognition, neurotransmission, ion channel function, and receptor specificity. The essential nature of this process is underscored by the finding that its misregulation is a common characteristic of human disease. This review highlights the current views of the biological phenomenon of alternative splicing, and describes evidence for its intricate underlying biochemical mechanisms. The roles of RNA binding proteins and their tissue-specific properties are discussed. Why does alternative splicing occur in cosmic proportions in the nervous system? How does it affect integrated cellular functions? How are region-specific, cell-specific and developmental differences in splicing directed? How are the control mechanisms that operate in the nervous system distinct from those of other tissues? Although there are many unanswered questions, substantial progress has been made in showing that alternative splicing is of major importance in generating proteomic diversity, and in modulating protein activities in a temporal and spatial manner. The relevance of alternative splicing to diseases of the nervous system is also discussed.
Grabowski, P.J. (2000) Genetic evidence for a Nova regulator of alternative splicing in the brain. Neuron 25:254-256
Ding, F., and P.J. Grabowski (1999) Identification of a protein component of a mammalian tRNA(Sec) complex implicated in the decoding of UGA as selenocysteine. RNA 5:1561-1569 This report describes a novel RNA-binding protein, SECp43, that associates specifically with mammalian selenocysteine tRNA (tRNA(Sec)). SECp43, identified from a degenerate PCR screen, is a highly conserved protein with two ribonucleoprotein-binding domains and a polar/acidic carboxy terminus. The protein and corresponding mRNA are generally expressed in rat tissues and mammalian cell lines. To gain insight into the biological role of SECp43, affinity-purified antibody was employed to identify its molecular partners. Surprisingly, the application of native HeLa cell extracts to a SECp43 antibody column results in the purification of a 90-nt RNA species identified by direct sequencing and Northern blot analysis as tRNA(Sec). The purification of tRNA(Sec) by the antibody column is striking, based on the low abundance of this tRNA species. Using recombinant SECp43 as a probe for interacting protein partners, we also identify a 48-kDa interacting protein, which is a possible component of the mammalian selenocysteine insertion (SECIS) pathway. To our knowledge, SECp43 is the first cloned protein demonstrated to associate specifically with eukaryotic tRNA(Sec).
Zhang, L., W Liu, and P.J. Grabowski (1999) Coordinate repression of a trio of neuron-specific splicing events by the splicing regulator PTB. RNA 5:117-130 In this study, we demonstrate the ability of the polypyrimidine tract binding protein PTB to function as a coordinator of splicing regulation for a trio of neuron-specific exons that are subject to developmental splicing changes in the rat cerebellum. Three neuron-specific exons that show positive regulation are derived from the GABA(A) receptor gamma2 subunit 24 nucleotide exon, clathrin light chain B exon EN, and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor NR1 subunit exon 5 pre-mRNAs. The functional activity of splicing repressor signals located in the 3' splice site regions adjacent to the neural exons is shown using an alternative splicing switch assay, in which these short RNA sequences function in trans to switch splicing to the neural pathway in HeLa splicing reactions. Parallel UV crosslinking/competition assays demonstrate selective binding of PTB in comparison to substantially lower binding at adjacent, nonneural 3' splice sites. Substantially lower PTB binding and splicing switch activity is also observed for the 3' splice site of NMDA exon 21, which is subject to negative regulation in cerebellum tissue in the same time frame. In splicing active neural extracts, the balance of control shifts to positive regulation, and this shift correlates with a PTB status that is predominantly the neural form. In this context, the addition of recombinant PTB is sufficient to switch splicing to the nonneural pathway. The neural extracts also reveal specific binding of the CUG triplet repeat binding protein to a subset of regulatory 3' splice site regions. These interactions may interfere with PTB function or modulate splicing levels in a substrate-specific manner within neural tissue. Together these results strengthen the evidence that PTB is a splicing regulator with multiple targets and demonstrate its ability to discriminate among neural and nonneural substrates. Thus, a variety of mechanisms that counterbalance the splicing repressor function of PTB in neural tissue are capable of mediating developmental splicing control. Altered expression of PTB isoforms during cerebellar development, as documented by Western blot analysis, is proposed to be a contributing mechanism.
Grabowski, P.J. (1998) Splicing regulation in neurons: tinkering with cell-specific control. Cell 92:709-712
Ashiya, M., and P.J. Grabowski (1997) A neuron-specific splicing switch mediated by an array of pre-mRNA repressor sites: evidence of a regulatory role for the polypyrimidine tract binding protein and a brain-specific PTB counterpart. RNA 3:996-1015 Tissue- and stage-specific alternative splicing events are widespread in mammals, yet the factors and mechanisms that direct these important posttranscriptional events are poorly understood. In this study, we focus on the 24-nt exon of the GABA(A) receptor gamma2 pre-mRNA, which is subject to neuron-specific and developmental splicing regulation in the rat cerebellum. Here we show biochemical evidence for a mechanism that directs the selective repression of the neuron-specific exon in non-neuronal splicing extracts derived from HeLa cells. Key evidence includes the discovery that the pathway of gamma2 pre-mRNA splicing switches from exon skipping to exon selection in splicing reactions with a short RNA competitor containing the 3' splice site region upstream of the 24-nt exon. In this assay, exon selection results from the coordinate activation of both flanking introns. A detailed dissection of this pre-mRNA region shows that it contains four repressor sites clustered around the branch site and extending into the 24-nt exon. These repressor sites are pyrimidine rich and bind avidly to the polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB) in HeLa nuclear extracts as determined by UV crosslinking/competition assays. Repression of the exon selection pathway is closely associated with the appearance of a specific RNA-protein complex, indicative of an inhibitor complex, that assembles on the repressor array. Upon the switch to the exon selection pathway, a substantial decrease in the inhibitor complex and a reciprocal increase in spliceosome complex A is observed. Excess recombinant PTB squelches the splicing switch and reestablishes exon skipping as the predominant splicing pathway. Extracts prepared from rat brain nuclei show reduced levels of conventional PTB compared to other splicing factors. Nonetheless, the rat brain nuclear extracts contain an activity that assembles an analogous inhibitor complex efficiently. We report a 59-kDa protein, p59, which has an electrophoretic mobility distinct from HeLa and rat kidney PTB, and which behaves in RNA binding assays as if it is the PTB counterpart in rat brain. Evidence that rat brain p59 is structurally related to PTB stems from western blot and immunoprecipitation analysis with a monoclonal antibody specific for the hnRNP I isoform of PTB. A model describing how the repressor array directs coordinate splicing regulation of flanking introns in the context of overlapping positive regulatory elements is discussed. The sequence, (5') UUCUCU (3'), in a pyrimidine context is associated with one class of intron splicing repressor sites that binds PTB in a variety of pre-mRNAs that are regulated by tissue-specific programs.
Ding, F., J.P. Hagan, Z. Wang, and P.J. Grabowski (1996) Biochemical properties of a novel U2AF65 protein isoform generated by alternative RNA splicing. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 224:675-683 A variety of RNA binding proteins with one or more RNA recognition (RNP-CS) motifs play essential roles in the pre-mRNA splicing process. One such factor, the U2 snRNP auxiliary factor large subunit (U2AF65), contains three RNP-CS motifs each of which is required for high affinity binding to polypyrimidine tracts. Here we report the isolation of a natural cDNA variant of human U2AF65, U2AF65 (S), which is shortened by a 12 nucleotide in frame deletion between RNP-CS2 and -CS3 motifs. A portion of the U2AF65 (S) cDNA was reported previously but was not characterized further. We observe that the U2AF65 (S) variant predominates in a variety of tissues and cell lines, and is generated together with the U2AF65 (L) form (2) by alternative 5' splice site selection from a single gene. The corresponding histidine-tagged recombinant proteins bind with similar affinities to model RNA substrates containing strong or weak polypyrimidine tracts. Both U2AF65 (S) and (L) protein isoforms reconstitute splicing activity with similar kinetic profiles in U2AF-depleted (splicing-deficient) HeLa nuclear extracts. Finally, the thermal stabilities of the protein isoforms are essentially equivalent. Thus, the presence or absence of the peptide segment, VSPP (residues 345-348), in the linker region between RNP-CS2 and -CS3 does not detract from the intrinsic RNA binding and splicing properties of the U2AF65 protein. The biological implications of alternative splicing for the function and evolution of RNA binding proteins are discussed.
Zhang, L., M. Ashiya, T.G. Sherman, and P.J. Grabowski (1996) Essential nucleotides direct neuron-specific splicing of g2 pre-mRNA. RNA 2:682-698 Tissue-and stage-specific pre-mRNA splicing events are prevalent in mammals, yet molecular details are lacking about these important mechanisms of posttranscriptional gene control. In this study, we investigate the regulated splicing of rat gamma 2 pre-mRNA, a subunit of the GABAA receptor, as a step toward understanding the molecular basis of a neuron-specific splicing event involving cassette exon selection. Cell-and substrate-specific regulation of gamma 2 pre-mRNA is recapitulated in a neuronal cell line derived from the cerebellum, which produces enhanced levels of the exon-selected mRNA. In contrast, a control cell line derived from non-neuronal cells of the pituitary produces prominent levels of the unregulated, exon-skipped mRNA. The cerebellar and pituitary cell lines are well matched in overall splicing efficiency and produce an invariant pattern of splicing for a control substrate, which is alternatively spliced but not regulated in this system. The appropriateness of the two cell lines is indicated by an extended mRNA mapping experiment, which documents the region-specific switch in exon selection throughout rat brain. Using this pair of cell lines, we show that large intron segments flanking the regulated exon are dispensable for regulation. These intron regions have been deleted to generate a minimal splicing substrate for the purpose of identifying essential RNA elements. In this context, we show that essential nucleotides are located at positions +7, +8, and +9 of the regulated exon and in a 9-nt adenosine-rich region of the adjacent 3' splice site. Due to the proximity and base complementarity of the required nucleotides, experiments were devised to test models involving the recognition of two single-stranded signals, or one duplex RNA signal. These results clearly disfavor the duplex RNA recognition model and indicate that the required regions are recognized as independent, single strands in neuronal cells. A weak 5' splice site adjacent to the regulated exon is required as a third essential element. Although the importance of a weak 5' splice site is common to other regulated systems such as NCAM, the essential nucleotides in the exon and 3' splice site region defined in this study for gamma 2 splicing regulation are novel.
Wang, Z., and P.J. Grabowski (1996) Cell- and stage-specific splicing events resolved in specialized neurons of the rat cerebellum. RNA 2:1241-1253 Tissue and stage-specific pre-mRNA splicing events are important for posttranscriptional gene control, yet the diversity of such regulatory pathways has been largely unexplored at the single-cell level. Here we use a less conventional approach, which combines the whole-cell patch clamp method and the reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, to examine five neuron-specific splicing events in individual Purkinje neurons during postnatal development in live slices of rat cerebellum. Within the dimensions of the slice, the neurons sampled in this manner remain connected in their natural circuits and express multiple neuron-specific mRNAs, unlike established cell lines. In contrast to invariant splicing of control mRNAs, significant changes in splicing regulation during development are displayed by regulated exons of the GABA(A) receptor gamma2 subunit, clathrin light chain B, neural cell adhesion molecule, and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor R1 mRNAs. Whereas two of the neuron-specific exons are regulated in parallel in Purkinje neurons, these same substrates are regulated differentially in cerebellar Granule neurons during the same course of development. These results illustrate how two types of specialized neurons contribute to splicing regulation in the natural environment of the complex tissue. In addition, these results provide a larger view of splicing regulation, favoring models in which cell-specific machineries operate in a more selective, rather than widespread manner, in these neuronal cell types.
Ashiya, M., L. Zhang, and P.J. Grabowski (1995) Regulated splicing of gamma2 pre-messenger RNA in neuronal cells. Nucleic Acids Symp. Ser. 1995:215-216 The pre-mRNA encoding the gamma 2 subunit of the gamma-aminobutyric acid Type A receptor is spliced in a tissue-specific manner in mammalian brain resulting in mRNAs containing or lacking a 24 nucleotide exon, gamma 2L and gamma 2S, respectively. The gamma 2S mRNA predominates in pituitary, whereas the gamma 2L predominates in brainstem, spinal cord and cerebellum. In this study, a cell line derived from rat cerebellum that qualitatively reproduces regulated splicing of gamma 2 pre-mRNA was identified and used to dissect cis-regulatory elements. Sequence elements that alter the selection of the 24 nucleotide exon fall into two functional classes-activating elements and inhibitory elements. We identified several inhibitory elements that inhibit splicing of the 24 nucleotide exon in all cell types as well as specific inhibitory elements which repress splicing in non-neuronal cells. Activating elements are localized within conserved intron regions, as judged by a comparison of rat and human gene sequences, and appear to function generally in activating splicing of the 24 nucleotide exon in the cell types tested so far. These results are compatible with a hypothesis in which the mechanism of regulation involves a release from inhibition. Current experiments are aimed toward the development of tools to identify the trans-regulatory components. Cunningham, T.P., J.P. Hagan, and P.J. Grabowski (1995) Reconstitution of exon-bridging activity with purified U2AF and U1 snRNP components. Nucleic Acids Symp. Ser. 1995:218-219 For pre-mRNAs containing multiple introns, the exon definition hypothesis has been proposed to account for the interactions that specify relatively short exons and prevent inappropriate exon-skipping [1]. Support for this hypothesis includes the finding that naturally occurring, or engineered mutations in 5' splice sites that weaken base complementary to U1 snRNA result in exon skipping due to a decrease in upstream 3' splice site activity. The reciprocal effect is also observed. For example, we found previously that the selection of the alternatively spliced rat preprotachykinin exon 4 is improved under conditions in which the adjacent 5' splice site is converted to a site with strengthened base pairing to U1 snRNA [2]. In the latter study, 3' splice site activity is improved in parallel with strengthened U1 snRNP binding to the downstream 5' splice site. Subsequent RNA-protein crosslinking experiments have provided evidence for exon bridging interactions between U2AF bound to the 3' splice site and U1 snRNP bound to the downstream 5' splice site in the preprotachykinin substrates [3]; see Figure 1. U2AF, a polypyrimidine tract binding protein composed of 65 and 35 kD subunits, is required for U2 snRNP binding to the adjacent branch site [4], [5]. In this work we have reconstituted exon bridging activity with purified components. These results show that U1 snRNP in addition to U2AF are the two components required to reconstitute full activity in vitro. The purified system has been used to test variants of U2AF and U1 snRNP. Our results show that the U1-A and U1-C proteins are dispensable for exon bridging activity. In addition, the 35 kD subunit of U2AF appears to be dispensable, at least under certain conditions. Wang, Z., H.M. Hoffmann, and P.J. Grabowski (1995) Intrinsic U2AF binding is modulated by exon enhancer signals in parallel with changes in splicing activity. RNA 1:21-35 A functional analysis of exon replacement mutations was performed in parallel with RNA-protein binding assays to gain insight into the role of the exon in alternative and simple splicing events. These results show that constitutive exons from unrelated genes contain strong signals that promote splicing in multiple sequence contexts by enhancing 3' splice site activity. A clue to the nature of the relationship between the exon and adjacent 3' splice site is indicated by the binding properties of exon variant RNAs when tested with different biochemical preparations of the essential splicing protein, U2AF. In the context of a complete nuclear extract, U2AF binding to the 3' splice site is stimulated by the presence of an adjacent constitutive exon. In contrast, highly purified HeLa U2AF binds equivalently to the exon variants under conditions in which differential polypyrimidine tract binding is evident. These results provide support for an assisted binding model in which positive-acting signals within exons, exon enhancers, direct the binding of accessory factors, which in turn increase the intrinsic affinity of U2AF for the adjacent 3' splice site. Further support for an assisted binding model is indicated by biochemical complementation of U2AF binding and by the localization of a novel exon enhancer, which, when introduced into a weak exon, stimulates splicing activity in parallel with U2AF binding. Immunoprecipitation analysis identifies the splicing factor, SC35, as a constituent of the exon enhancer binding complex. These results are discussed in the context of current models for functional exon-bridging interactions.
Grabowski, P.J. (1992) Characterization of RNA. Pp 31-55 in RNA Processing - A Practical Approach, Rickwood, D., and B.D. Hames, Ed. IRL Press, Oxford Hoffman, B.E., and P.J. Grabowski (1992) U1 snRNP targets an essential splicing factor, U2AF65, to the 3' splice site by a network of interactions spanning the exon. Genes Dev. 6:2554-2568 A description of cellular factors that govern alternative splicing of pre-mRNA is largely incomplete. In the case of the rat preprotachykinin gene, splicing of the alternative exon E4 occurs by a poorly understood mechanism in which exon selection is under the positive control of U1 snRNP. Because the binding of U1 snRNP to the 5' splice site of E4 is coincident with the selection of the 3' splice site of E4, this mechanism would appear to involve interactions that bridge across the exon. In this work, a UV cross-linking strategy was used to identify possible RNA-protein interactions involved in the proposed exon-bridging model. Of particular interest is a prominent 61-kD protein, p61, that binds to the 3' splice site of E4 in a manner that is clearly facilitated by a downstream 5' splice site and U1 snRNP particles. The identity of p61 is the essential splicing factor U2AF65, on the basis of copurification and selective binding to polypyrimidine tracts. These results indicate a model in which exon selection is positively regulated by the communication of U1 snRNP and U2AF65. That is, a natural deficiency in binding U2AF65 to the 3' splice site that leads to exon skipping might be overcome by a mechanism in which U1 snRNP facilitates the binding of U2AF65 through a network of template-directed and exon-bridging interactions. Kuo, H.C., F.H. Nasim, and P.J. Grabowski (1991) Control of alternative splicing by the differential binding of U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle. Science 251:1045-1050 Cellular factors controlling alternative splicing of precursor messenger RNA are largely unknown, even though this process plays a central role in specifying the diversity of proteins in the eukaryotic cell. For the identification of such factors, a segment of the rat preprotachykinin gene was used in which differential expression of neuropeptides gamma and K is dependent on alternative splicing of the fourth exon (E4). Sequence variants of the three-exon segment, (E3-E4-E5) were created, resulting in a sensitive assay for factors mediating the splicing switch between E4-skipping and E4-inclusion. A dinucleotide mutation in the 5' splice site of E4 that increase base-pairing of this site to U1 small nuclear RNA resulted in uniform selection of E4, whereas a control mutation that destroyed base-pairing resulted in uniform E4-skipping. Affinity selection of spliceosomes formed on these functionally distinct substrates revealed that the extreme difference in splicing was mediated by differential binding of the U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle (snRNP) to the 5' splice site of E4. These data show that, apart from its established role in selecting 5' splice sites, U1 snRNP plays a fundamental role in 3' exon selection and provides insight into possible mechanisms of alternative splicing. Grabowski, P.J., F.U. Nasim, H.C. Kuo, and R. Burch (1991) Combinatorial splicing of exon pairs by two-site binding of U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle. Mol. Cell. Biol. 11:5919-5928 A two-site model for the binding of U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle (U1 snRNP) was tested in order to understand how exon partners are selected in complex pre-mRNAs containing alternative exons. In this model, it is proposed that two U1 snRNPs define a functional unit of splicing by base pairing to the 3' boundary of the downstream exon as well as the 5' boundary of the intron to be spliced. Three-exon substrates contained the alternatively spliced exon 4 (E4) region of the preprotachykinin gene. Combined 5' splice site mutations at neighboring exons demonstrate that weakened binding of U1 snRNP at the downstream site and improved U1 snRNP binding at the upstream site result in the failure to rescue splicing of the intron between the mutations. These results indicate the stringency of the requirement for binding a second U1 snRNP to the downstream 5' splice site for these substrates as opposed to an alternative model in which a certain threshold level of U1 snRNP can be provided at either site. Further support for the two-site model is provided by single-site mutations in the 5' splice site of the third exon, E5, that weaken base complementarity to U1 RNA. These mutations block E5 branchpoint formation and, surprisingly, generate novel branchpoints that are specified chiefly by their proximity to a cryptic 5' splice site located at the 3' terminus of the pre-mRNA. The experiments shown here demonstrate a true stimulation of 3' splice site activity by the downstream binding of U1 snRNP and suggest a possible mechanism by which combinatorial patterns of exon selection are achieved for alternatively spliced pre-mRNAs.
Grabowski, P.J. (1990) Analysis of splicing complexes using biotin-streptavidin affinity chromatography. Methods Enzymol. 184:319-327 Nasim, F.H., P.A. Spears, H.M. Haffman, H.C. Kuo, and P.J. Grabowski (1990) A sequential splicing mechanism promotes selection of an optimal exon by repositioning a downstream 5' splice site in preprotachykinin pre-mRNA. Genes Dev. 4:1172-1184 To explore the structural basis of alternative splicing, we have analyzed the splicing of pre-mRNAs containing an optional exon, E4, from the preprotachykinin gene. This gene encodes substance P and related tachykinin peptides by alternative splicing of a common pre-mRNA. We have shown that alternative splicing of preprotachykinin pre-mRNA occurs by preferential skipping of optional E4. The competing mechanism that incorporates E4 into the final spliced RNA is constrained by an initial block to splicing of the immediate upstream intervening sequence (IVS), IVS3. This block is relieved by sequential splicing, in which the immediate downstream IVS4 is removed first. The structural change resulting from the first splicing event is directly responsible for activation of IVS3 splicing. This structural rearrangement replaces IVS4 sequences with E5 and its adjacent IVS5 sequences. To determine how this structural change promoted IVS3 splicing, we asked what structural change(s) would restore activity of IVS3 splicing-defective mutants. The most significant effect was observed by a 2-nucleotide substitution that converted the 5' splice site of E4 to an exact consensus match, GUAAGU. Exon 5 sequences alone were found not to promote splicing when present in one or multiple copies. However, when a 15-nucleotide segment of IVS5 containing GUAAGU was inserted into a splicing-defective mutant just downstream of the hybrid exon segment E4E5, splicing activity was recovered. Curiously, the 72-nucleotide L2 exon of adenovirus, without its associated 5' splice site, activates splicing when juxtaposed to E4. Models for the activation of splicing by an RNA structural change are discussed. Dahlberg, A.E., and P.J. Grabowski (1989) Gel electrophoresis of ribonucleoproteins: ribosomes and spliceosomes. Pp 275-288 in Gel Electrophoresis of Nucleic Acids, Rickwood, D., and B.D. Hames, Ed. IRL Press Ltd., Oxford Lamond, A.I., M.M. Konarska, P.J. Grabowski, and P.A. Sharp (1988) Spliceosome assembly involves the binding and release of U4 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 85:411-415 Splicing complexes that form a rabbit beta-globin precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) have been analyzed for their small nuclear RNA (snRNA) content by both affinity chromatography and specific probe hybridization of replicas of native electrophoretic gels. A pathway of spliceosome assembly was deduced that has at least three stages. (i) U2 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) alone binds to sequences of mRNA upstream of the 3' splice site. (ii) U4, U5, and U6 snRNPs bind, apparently simultaneously. (iii) U4 snRNP is released to generate a spliceosome that contains U2, U5, and U6 snRNPs together with the RNA intermediates in splicing. U1 snRNP was not detected in association with any of these complexes. A parallel analysis of the spliceosome found with an adenovirus precursor mRNA substrate yielded an identical snRNP composition with one additional, unidentified RNA species, called X. This latter RNA species was not detected in the spliceosome bound to the beta-globin substrate.
Sharp, P.A., M.M. Konarksa, P.J. Grabowski, A.I. Lamond, R. Marciniak, and S.R. Seiler (1987) Splicing of messenger RNA precursors. Cold Spring Harb. Sym. 52:277-285 Padgett, R.A., P.J. Grabowski, M.M. Konarska, S. Seiler, and P.A. Sharp (1986) Splicing of messenger RNA precursors. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 55:1119-1150
Choi, Y.D., P.J. Grabowski, P.A. Sharp, and G. Dreyfuss (1986) Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins: role in RNA splicing. Science 231:1534-1539 Splicing in vitro of a messenger RNA (mRNA) precursor (pre-mRNA) is inhibited by a monoclonal antibody to the C proteins (anti-C) of the heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)-ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) particles. This antibody, 4F4, inhibits an early step of the reaction: cleavage at the 3' end of the upstream exon and the formation of the intron lariat. In contrast, boiled 4F4, or a different monoclonal antibody (designated 2B12) to the C proteins, or antibodies to other hnRNP proteins (120 and 68 kilodaltons) and nonimmune mouse antibodies have no inhibitory effect. The 4F4 antibody does not prevent the adenosine triphosphate-dependent formation of a 60S splicing complex (spliceosome). Furthermore, the 60S splicing complex contains C proteins, and it can be immunoprecipitated with 4F4. Depletion of C proteins from the splicing extract by immunoadsorption with either of the two monoclonal antibodies to the C proteins (4F4 or 2B12) results in the loss of splicing activity, whereas mock-depletion with nonimmune mouse antibodies bodies has no effect. A 60S splicing complex does not form in a C protein-depleted nuclear extract. These results indicate an essential role for proteins of the hnRNP complex in the splicing of mRNA precursors. Grabowski, P.J., and P.A. Sharp (1986) Affinity chromatography of splicing complexes: U2, U5, and U4 + U6 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles in the spliceosome. Science 233:1294-1299 The splicing process, which removes intervening sequences from messenger RNA (mRNA) precursors is essential to gene expression in eukaryotic cells. This site-specific process requires precise sequence recognition at the boundaries of an intervening sequence, but the mechanism of this recognition is not understood. The splicing of mRNA precursors occurs in a multicomponent complex termed the spliceosome. Such an assembly of components is likely to play a key role in specifying those sequences to be spliced. In order to analyze spliceosome structure, a stringent approach was developed to obtain splicing complexes free of cellular contaminants. This approach is a form of affinity chromatography based on the high specificity of the biotin-streptavidin interaction. A minimum of three subunits: U2, U5, and U4 + U6 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles were identified in the 35S spliceosome structure, which also contains the bipartite RNA intermediate of splicing. A 25S presplicing complex contained only the U2 particle. The multiple subunit structure of the spliceosome has implications for the regulation of a splicing event and for its possible catalysis by ribozyme or ribozymes. Padgett, R.A., M.M. Konarska, P.J. Grabowski, M. Aebi, C. Weissmann, and P.A. Sharp (1985) Studies on the mechanism of mRNA splicing in vitro. Pp in Sequence Specificity in Transcription and Translation, UCLA Symp. on Molecular and Cellular Biology, Emerson, C., D.A. Fischman, B. Nadal-Ginard, and M.A.Q. Sidiqui, Ed. Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York Sharp, P.A., R.E. Kingston, A.S. Baldwin, R.A. Padgett, M.M. Konarska, and P.J. Grabowski (1985) Expression of mRNA in eukaryotic cells. Pp in Molecular Biology of Muscle Development UCLA symp. on Molecular and Cellular Biology, Emerson, C., D.A. Fischman, B. Nadal-Ginard, and M.A.Q. Sidiqui, Ed. Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York Konarska, M.M., P.J. Grabowski, R.A. Padgett, and P.A. Sharp (1985) Characterization of the branch site in lariat RNAs produced by splicing of mRNA precursors. Nature 313:552-557 The branch site of lariat RNAs produced during the splicing of the first two late leader exons of adenovirus-2 has a structure of (formula; see text) There is a distinct complementarity between sequences preceding the adenosine at the branch site and the 5' terminus of the intervening sequence. Grabowski, P.J., S.R. Seiler, and P.A. Sharp (1985) A multicomponent complex is involved in the splicing of messenger RNA precursors. Cell 42:345-353 A multicomponent complex termed spliceosome (splicing body) is unique to the splicing of messenger RNA precursors in vitro. This 60S RNA-protein complex contains RNAs from the previously characterized bipartite splicing intermediate, the 5' exon RNA, and the lariat intervening sequence-3' exon RNA, as well as some intact 455 nucleotide precursor RNA. This complex contains snRNPs, particularly U1 RNP, as shown by immunoprecipitation with specific antisera. Formation of the 60S complex appears to be an early and essential step in splicing, because the 60S complex forms during the early stage, or lag time, of the reaction before the first covalent modification, cleavage at the 5' splice site of precursor RNA. The 60S complex forms only under conditions that permit splicing; both ATP and a precursor RNA containing authentic 5' and 3' splice sites are required for formation, while antiserum specific for U1 RNP inhibits its formation. RNA within the 60S complex, predominantly precursor RNA, was chased into products with accelerated kinetics and more complete conversion than purified precursor RNA.
Hardy, S.F., P.J. Grabowski, R.A. Padgett, and P.A. Sharp (1984) Cofactor requirements of splicing of purified messenger RNA precursors. Nature 308:375-377 The origin and functions of introns in protein coding genes is one of the enigmas of molecular biology. Splicing processes that remove intervening sequences from precursor RNAs must have either predated or co-evolved with introns. Inferences about the origin of introns and the possible modes of regulation of splicing should emerge from an understanding of the biochemical mechanisms of splicing. The biochemistry of splicing of tRNA and rRNA precursors has rapidly advanced with the development of in vitro reactions containing soluble components that duplicate in vivo reactions. We have recently shown that accurate splicing of an adenovirus mRNA precursor occurs during a coupled transcription/splicing reaction in a soluble whole cell extract. We now report that an exogenous RNA substrate containing the first and second leaders of adenovirus 2 is accurately spliced when added to an extract of HeLa cells. ATP and Mg2+ are essential cofactors for the reaction. The time course of splicing is unusual; a lag of 45 min is observed before the appearance of splicing product. Grabowski, P.J., R.A. Padgett, and P.A. Sharp (1984) Messenger RNA splicing in vitro: an excised intervening sequence and a potential intermediate. Cell 37:415-427 Four RNA products have been characterized from a soluble system that accurately splices purified substrate RNA. The labeled substrate RNA contained the first and second exons of the major late transcription unit of adenovirus 2 and a shortened form of the first intervening sequence. One of these RNA products was the excised intervening sequence which accumulated quantitatively with the level of splicing. This RNA species has an unusual structure and is modified at internal sites. A potential intermediate in the splicing pathway which is cleaved at the 5' splice site of the first exon has been isolated. This RNA species is also modified at sites within the first intervening sequence. These results suggest that the splicing of mRNA precursors may involve sites in the intervening sequence, cleavage at the 5' splice site, cleavage at the 3' splice site, and ligation of the two exons.
Padgett, R.A., M.M. Konarska, P.J. Grabowski, S.F. Hardy, and P.A. Sharp (1984) Lariat RNA's as intermediates and products in the splicing of messenger RNA precursors. Science 225:898-903 The splicing of messenger RNA precursors in vitro proceeds through an intermediate that has the 5' end of the intervening sequence joined to a site near the 3' splice site. This lariat structure, which has been characterized for an adenovirus 2 major late transcript, has a branch point, with 2'-5' and 3'-5' phosphodiester bonds emanating from a single adenosine residue. The excised intervening sequence retains the branch site and terminates in a guanosine residue with a 3' hydroxyl group. The phosphate group at the splice junction between the two exons originates from the 3' splice site at the precursor. Grabowski, P.J., S.L. Brehm, A.J. Zaug, K. Kruger, and T.R. Cech (1983) Self-splicing of the ribosomal RNA precursor of Tetrahymena. Pp in Gene Expression, Vol. 8, Hamer, D.H., and M. Rosenberg, Ed. Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York Zaug, A.J., P.J. Grabowski, and T.R. Cech (1983) Autocatalytic cyclization of an excised intervening sequence RNA is a cleavage-ligation reaction. Nature 301:578-583 The intervening sequence (IVS) of the Tetrahymena ribosomal RNA precursor is excised as a linear RNA molecule which subsequently cyclizes itself in a protein-independent reaction. Cyclization involves cleavage of the linear IVS RNA 15 nucleotides from its 5' end and formation of a phosphodiester bond between the new 5' phosphate and the original 3'-hydroxyl terminus of the IVS. This recombination mechanism is analogous to that by which splicing of the precursor RNA is achieved. The circular molecules appear to have no direct function in RNA splicing, and we propose the cyclization serves to prevent unwanted RNA from driving the splicing reactions backwards. Cech, T.R., A.J. Zaug, P.J. Grabowski, and S.L. Brehm (1982) Transcription and splicing of the ribosomal RNA precursor of Tetrahymena. Pp in The Cell Nucleus: Volume X, Busch, H., and L. Rothblum, Ed. Academic Press, New York Kruger, K., P.J. Grabowski, A.J. Zaug, J. sands, D.E. Gottschling, and T.R. Cech (1982) Self-splicing RNA: autoexcision and autocyclization of the ribosomal RNA intervening sequence of Tetrahymena. Cell 31:147-157 In the macronuclear rRNA genes of Tetrahymena thermophila, a 413 bp intervening sequence (IVS) interrupts the 26S rRNA-coding region. A restriction fragment of the rDNA containing the IVS and portions of the adjacent rRNA sequences (exons) was inserted downstream from the lac UV5 promoter in a recombinant plasmid. Transcription of this template by purified Escherichia coli RNA polymerase in vitro produced a shortened version of the pre-rRNA, which was then deproteinized. When incubated with monovalent and divalent cations and a guanosine factor, this RNA underwent splicing. The reactions that were characterized included the precise excision of the IVS, attachment of guanosine to the 5' end of the IVS, covalent cyclization of the IVS and ligation of the exons. We conclude that splicing activity is intrinsic to the structure of the RNA, and that enzymes, small nuclear RNAs and folding of the pre-rRNA into an RNP are unnecessary for these reactions. We propose that the IVS portion of the RNA has several enzyme-like properties that enable it to break and reform phosphodiester bonds. The finding of autocatalytic rearrangements of RNA molecules has implications for the mechanism and the evolution of other reactions that involve RNA.
Grabowski, P.J., A.J. Zaug, and T.R. Cech (1981) The intervening sequence of the ribosomal RNA precursor is converted to a circular RNA in isolated nuclei of Tetrahymena. Cell 23:467-476 The Tetrahymena thermophila ribosomal RNA gene contains an intervening sequence (IVS), which is transcribed as part of the precursor RNA and subsequently removed by splicing. We have found previously that the IVS is excised as a 0.4 kb RNA in isolated nuclei. We now report the finding of a novel RNA molecule, which is an electrophoretic variant (EV) of this 0.4 kb IVS RNA. The EV was identified as a form of the IVS RNA by Southern hybridization, RNA fingerprinting and R-loop mapping. A pulse-chase experiment established that in vitro the excised IVS RNA is converted to the EV by a post-splicing event. This conversion is enhanced at 39 degrees C compared to 30 degrees C and is irreversible under our experimental conditions. The EV of the IVS is a circular RNA. This structure was first suggested by its anomalous electrophoretic mobility on denaturing compared to nondenaturing gels. When the EV was prepared for electron microscopy under totally denaturing conditions, 0.4 kb circular molecules were observed. Furthermore, we have converted the circular form to a linear form by limited T1 RNAase digestion. The circular RNA survived treatment with DNAase, protease, glyoxal and various denaturants, which suggests that it is a covalently closed RNA circle.
Cech, T.R., A.J. Zaug, and P.J. Grabowski (1981) In vitro splicing of the ribosomal RNA precursor of Tetrahymena: involvement of a guanosine nucleotide in the excision of the intervening sequence. Cell 27:487-496 In previous studies of transcription and splicing of the ribosomal RNA precursor in isolated Tetrahymena nuclei, we found that the intervening sequence (IVS) was excised as a unique linear RNA molecule and was subsequently cyclized. In the present work, transcription at low monovalent cation concentration is found to inhibit splicing and to lead to the accumulation of a splicing intermediate. This intermediate contains splicing activity that either is tightly bound to the RNA or is part of the RNA molecule itself. The intermediate is able to complete the excision of the IVS when it is incubated with a monovalent cation (75 mM (NH4)2SO4), a divalent cation (5-10 mM MgCl2) and a guanosine compound (1 microM GTP, GDP, GMP or guanosine). ATP, UTP, CTP and guanosine compounds without 2' and 3' hydroxyl groups are inactive in causing excision of the IVS. Accurate excision of the IVS, cyclization of the IVS and (apparently) ligation of the 26S rRNA sequences bordering the IVS all take place under these conditions, suggesting that a single activity is responsible for all three reactions. During excision of the IVS, the 3' hydroxyl of the guanosine moiety becomes linked to the 5' end of the IVS RNA via a normal phosphodiester bond. When GTP is used to drive the reaction, it is added intact without hydrolysis. Based on these results, we propose that Tetrahymena pre-rRNA splicing occurs by a phosphoester transferase mechanism. According to this model, the guanosine cofactor provides the free 3' hydroxyl necessary to initiate a series of three transfers that results in splicing of the pre-rRNA and cyclization of the excised IVS.
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